Citizenship, Democracy, and Globalization: Key Concepts
The Political Experience of Greece and its Influence
The political experience of Greece, as analyzed by Aristotle, had a decisive influence on Western political thought. The citizen is defined as a function of the city-state system. Not every inhabitant of the city has the condition of a citizen; women and slaves do not. Residence in the city does not automatically confer citizenship, although there are residents with certain rights who are not citizens. Children and the elderly are considered imperfect citizens. A citizen is entitled to participate in the deliberative or judicial functions of the city. To hold office and participate in them means having virtue (arete).
Stoicism and the Concept of Cosmopolitan Citizenship
In contrast to citizenship understood as belonging to a Greek polis city-state, the most relevant and innovative concept brought by Stoicism and Rome was that of cosmopolitan citizenship. The fundamental idea is the affirmation of a community of nature and universal reason that involves all humans. As Cicero states, “No man is alien to another man” because of their shared humanity. The fundamental civic duty is the full dedication to serving the community and placing value on the common good. Cosmopolitan citizenship could be considered republican in the sense that it gives expression to public administration, public affairs, and the people’s business.
The State of Nature and the Need for Society
In a state of war of all against all, in which humans use violence and force to seize the property of others, the conditions under which coexistence is possible are altogether missing. For this reason, human beings need to enter society and the state to safeguard property, lives, and freedom. The state is the way to save all that we care for and ensure that man is not a wolf to man.
Locke’s Liberal Thought and the Modern State
Locke’s liberal thought is highly relevant to the modern liberal state.
- a) Locke believes, unlike Hobbes and Rousseau, that man is social by nature. The natural sociability of man does not prevent him from holding a series of inherent rights.
- b) The state of nature in which man lives is a state of complete freedom and equality, and natural law governs us all.
- c) Hence, a rational calculation in view of self-interest claims constitutes a political body or state that guarantees the life and property of its members.
- d) The contract or agreement establishing the state is neither an agreement of transfer of rights nor submission to absolute power.
Rousseau’s Critique of Hobbes and Locke
Rousseau identifies fundamental inadequacies in the theories of Hobbes and Locke.
- Regarding Hobbes: Rousseau believes that Hobbes’ form of contract denies the natural freedom of man and does not provide for or permit civil and political liberties.
- Regarding Locke: Rousseau seeks a much more radical contract in which man may have civil liberty with all its rights. According to Rousseau, natural man does not have true freedom, and liberty prior to his association with the state. Man can exit the natural state and enter into civil status in two ways: by a contract of sale or by a social contract.
Objectives of the Social Contract
- Establishment of social peace, as opposed to a state of war of all against all. This is a peace built through rational agreement.
- Victory over unequal relations among community members.
- The safety of citizens, even against the state and its possible abuses of power.
- Protecting and guaranteeing the fundamental rights of human beings against any attack.
- The attainment of freedom and justice.
Iusnaturalism: Natural Rights and Positive Law
Iusnaturalism maintains the existence of native rights innate in man, typical of the rational nature of man. These rights are independent of positive law and inalienable from the social contract. There are various currents within iusnaturalism:
- Cosmological natural law appeals to the existing order in the cosmos.
- Theological iusnaturalism refers to the order established by God.
- Rationalist natural law holds that this order is derived from human reason. According to iusnaturalism, positive law must conform to natural law; otherwise, it may be classified as legal but not fair.
Legal Positivism: Hans Kelsen’s Pure Theory of Law
Legal positivism finds its most paradigmatic formulation in Hans Kelsen’s pure theory of law. Law is independent of any political or ethical principle. It is a reality outside of any reference to social reality and has no relationship with any natural right.
Representative Democracy and the Electoral System
In representative democracy, the will of the electorate is represented by parliament and through the various representative bodies. Representatives are required to execute the will of the represented, and the electoral body may withdraw its confidence and the character of representatives. The electoral system plays a fundamental role in representative democracy.
Globalization: Definition, Effects, and Challenges
A precise definition of globalization would connect two main ingredients: technology and finance. Our living conditions and our choices seem to come to us now given in a framework that is no longer the state to which we belong and which assures us of our rights and freedoms. Instead, it is a global framework in which these guarantees are blurred. Negative effects of globalization include some of the poorest areas of the world falling into a state of barbarism, with looting and gangs extorting the civilian population. Beneficial effects of globalization include the dissemination of scientific knowledge and the mediating role of the UN.
The Kantian Idea of Public Use of Reason
The theoretical basis of this communication is democratic, rooted in the Kantian idea of a public use of reason. This is provided for by civil liberties and the possibility of using one’s own reason without guardians or guides.
Active Citizens and Critical Thinking in Democracy
Unlike other political systems, democracy requires a body of active citizens with critical thinking skills. They cannot be limited to mere subjects receiving political decisions but must be the authors of those decisions.
Pluralism and Tolerance in a Democratic Society
In a democracy, pluralism is essential. This involves the orderly and peaceful coexistence of different opinions and even conflicting interests. Political pluralism is not without conflict but lies in the recognition of the parties and the principle that any democratic party is entitled to direct politics. Tolerance does not mean indifference or permissiveness; it expresses liberality of thought and action and is based on respect for the freedom, autonomy, and dignity of others.