Christian Kingdoms in Late Middle Ages: Castile & Aragon
The Christian Kingdoms in the Late Middle Ages
Political Organization and Institutions in the Kingdom of Castile and the Crown of Aragon
Kingdom of Castile
The capital of Castile was initially mobile, moving with the king. However, from the 15th century onward, it tended to remain in the Northern Plateau, particularly in Valladolid. The Treasury gained increasing importance, significantly strengthening the crown. A progressive increase in tax revenue—including taxes on sales, services, and wool—allowed the kings greater autonomy. Specialized Finance and Accounts offices were developed, along with a network of tax collectors.
Territorial organization was consolidated under Alfonso X with the adelantado, a royal official with judicial, political, and military powers over a district, usually a border region. Merindades, geographical and administrative divisions, emerged at the end of the 12th century. The merino, the king’s representative in each merindad, was primarily responsible for collecting rents and services.
The crown also attempted to control town councils, governed by neighborhood assemblies. Alfonso XI regulated city governance through the regimientos system (chaired by an alderman). The crown also sent corregidores to intervene in city conflicts. Despite these efforts, the Trastámara dynasty weakened the councils, granting autonomy to many noble-controlled cities.
The Cortes, first meeting in León in 1188 as an extension of the Curia Regia, had a consultative role and were dominated by the king. Initially, representatives of cities, nobility, and clergy attended, but eventually, representation was reduced to attorneys from 17 cities responsible for tax expenditures. The Cortes discussed a wide range of issues, including city complaints and broader political matters.
Crown of Aragon
The Crown of Aragon wasn’t a single state but a union of kingdoms (Aragon, Valencia, Majorca) and the Principality of Catalonia. Each had distinct institutions and laws. Communication difficulties, the vast territories, and a small royal court contributed to the political weakness of most Aragonese kings. The crown’s active but costly foreign policy, particularly Mediterranean conquests, forced it to seek financial aid from the privileged classes, further weakening its position.
In 1283, the Aragonese and Catalan courts imposed on Pedro III the Great the Oath of General Privilege and the privileges of their respective kingdoms, essentially granting privileges to nobles and clergy, including autonomy within their domains. The crown also agreed to convene the Cortes frequently to consult on various issues, especially when seeking subsidies. In Aragon, the king accepted the jurisdiction of the Justicia Mayor, a nobleman responsible for defending noble privileges against the king. This established a model of political operation based on pacts and agreements between the monarchy and the magnates.
The aristocracy and higher clergy frequently used force. In 1359, Pedro IV accepted the formation of the Diputación del General of Catalonia to oversee the administration of grants and the fulfillment of agreements. This council, later renamed the Generalitat, became the Catalan government. Similar councils were later created in Valencia and Aragon.
In each kingdom, the king had a Lieutenant or Governor (Viceroy in Majorca) who managed territorial administration. In 1344, Pedro IV issued the Ordinance of the Royal Family, regulating the Royal Council and the High Court. Territorial administration was organized into merindades or vegueries. City power resided in the city council, which, by the late Middle Ages, fell under the control of local oligarchies (e.g., the Concell de Cent of Barcelona).
The Cortes served as a watchdog over the crown, dominated by the nobility and clergy. They were composed of three estates: nobility, church, and urban patricians (except in Aragon, where the nobility was divided into ricos hombres and knights). The Cortes defended feudal interests against the crown’s attempts to expand its authority, often opening with the presentation of grievances against the king or his officials.
Attempts by the Trastámara dynasty (established in 1412) to establish an authoritarian monarchy faced opposition from the nobility. The kings sought support from the remensa (peasants) and craftsmen/merchants (Busca) against the Barcelona oligarchy (Biga), but achieved little against the aristocracy and oligarchy, who even rebelled in the civil war of 1462–1472. The Sentence of Guadalupe (1486) recognized the power of the nobility and the system of pacts.