Chiang Kai-shek, the CCP, and the Road to the Long March (1927–1937)

Posted on Feb 7, 2026 in History

The Shanghai Massacres and Extermination Campaigns

  • The **NRA** (National Revolutionary Army) liberated Shanghai from the warlords.
  • Chiang Kai-shek feared a general strike and a **CCP** (Chinese Communist Party) takeover.
  • Chiang was prepared, attacked, and killed anyone suspected of being a Communist.
  • The **White Terror** resulted in many casualties.

Consequences of the Massacres

  • The campaign failed to crush the Communists.
  • A split occurred within the **KMT** (Kuomintang), and Chiang was temporarily expelled from the party.
  • The policy of the United Front between the KMT and Communists was affirmed (by some factions).
    • This policy meant peace between both parties.
    • It called for elections in the near future to determine the rightful power in China.
  • Stalin rejected this policy.
  • After the massacres, Stalin wanted the CCP to build the **Red Army** to take over the KMT.
  • This aggressive policy weakened the Communists.
  • The KMT was united again, and Chiang was reinstated as leader.
  • The CCP tried Stalin’s aggressive policy but was crushed each time.
  • The KMT broke off all relations with the CCP.
  • 1927 was disastrous for the CCP.
  • New Soviet advisers were sent to the CCP, bringing it fully under Soviet influence.

The Long March (1934–1935)

  • The CCP’s survival depended on the creation of 12 rural bases in remote regions.
  • There, they could recruit local peasants desperate due to bad harvests and other hardships.
  • The KMT was ready to fully exterminate the CCP in their bases but was distracted by Japan.
  • A year passed, and the KMT resumed its campaign successfully, forcing the CCP to evacuate.
  • Again, the KMT extermination campaign was interrupted by Japan, leading to a negotiated ceasefire.
  • The KMT cut off food supplies and sent Nationalist forces by land and air, forcing the CCP to evacuate to an even more remote location.
  • This led to the ***Long March***.
  • It lasted a year and covered 8,000 kilometers.
  • The chance of survival was low:
    • They faced hostile territories, KMT and warlord attacks, disease, hypothermia, and starvation.
  • Ten thousand Communists made it out. How?
    • Warlords, who couldn’t be trusted by Chiang, sometimes helped Mao and the CCP.
    • Chiang’s operations were ruined by harsh weather.
    • Miscalculations occurred in surprise operations against the CCP.
    • Mao gained support along the way from peasants.
    • Chiang was distracted by Japan.

The Xi’an Incident

  • The CCP was not safe from the KMT.
  • Chiang was kidnapped, which ultimately strengthened the CCP’s position.

Chiang Accused of Appeasement

  • Mao accused Chiang of appeasing Japan.
  • Chiang was actually strengthening his forces and buying armaments to fight Japan.
  • However, this preparation was secret, so Chiang could not publicly retaliate against Mao’s accusations.
  • The CCP gained support from warlords and Chinese patriots.
  • Chiang wanted to get rid of the CCP first, then fight Japan.
  • Mao responded to this by creating a **United Front** (KMT, CCP, and Warlords) against Japan.

The Kidnapping of Chiang and Its Consequences

  • Chiang was rounded up and imprisoned.
  • Mao demanded Chiang’s elimination but was overruled by Stalin.
  • Stalin believed that Chiang was the best leader to fight a war against Japan.
  • Chiang was freed, and a United Front was formed between the KMT and the CCP.

Attempts at Modernization and Reform

  • Chiang could not fully modernize China because of the ongoing conflict with the CCP and preparations for the war against Japan.

Chiang Reappointed Head of the KMT Government

  • The KMT wing that had relations with the CCP cut them off.
  • The two wings of the KMT were reunited again.
  • The KMT initially wanted a government without Chiang, who had been forced to resign.
  • A Communist uprising led to Chiang being reinstated as the KMT leader once more.
  • Chiang won support from many groups in China.
  • Communists were marginalized.

The New Government and Administration

  • Chiang created a new blueprint for China, consisting of five departments which controlled the business of government.
  • A ‘parliament’ was established, but it was an unelected body whose members were appointed by the government.
  • Chiang operated as a dictator.
  • A party dictatorship was established to impose the regime on China.
  • Tight control was maintained over the press, education, and arts.
  • The police and the **Blue Shirts** conducted a reign of terror against dissidents.

Economic and Financial Reforms

  • Chiang had ambitious plans for financial, agricultural, and industrial reforms.
  • These enlightened reforms, if effective, would have undermined the CCP.
  • However, the ambitious plans were impossible to implement:
    • China was still divided.
    • Warlords, though defeated, were not eliminated completely.
    • Money was spent on military forces against the CCP, warlords, or Japan.
    • No money was left for the ambitious plans.
  • In the countryside, little changed, making it easy for the CCP to gain support from peasants and farm workers.