Charles I and Philip II: Spain’s Golden Age, Power, and Conflicts
Charles I (1516-1556): The Universal Ruler
The Universal Rule: Charles I (Charles V of Germany): Charles I of Spain (1516-1556), son of Juana of Castile and Philip of Habsburg, inherited a vast empire: from his mother, the kingdoms of Castile and Navarre, the Crown of Aragon, Italian territories, and American possessions; from his father, the Netherlands; and upon his grandfather’s death, the Habsburg possessions and the title of Holy Roman Emperor (1519).
Internal Problems
Charles departed for Germany in 1520 amidst growing unrest, leading to riots:
- The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521): This revolt emerged in cities of Castile (Toledo, Segovia, etc.) due to protests from hidalgos, artisans, and merchants against economic policies and perceived lack of representation. The conflict spread, including anti-seigneurial peasant revolts.
- GermanÃas (1521-1523): These uprisings occurred in Aragon, with the most serious incidents in Valencia and Mallorca.
External Conflicts
Charles faced conflicts with France (1525-1544), his main rival in Europe, battling King Francis I and winning the Battle of Pavia (1525). He also engaged in wars with the Ottoman Turks (from 1529 to 1541). A major conflict arose from the German princes’ support for Martin Luther’s Protestantism.
The Society
The nobility held significant power, accumulating a large percentage of the kingdom’s income along with the clergy. Peasants, comprising 80% of the population, were largely underprivileged. Spanish society also included distinct ethnic groups: Moriscos (converted Muslims) and conversos (converted Jews).
Philip II (1556-1598): Defense of Catholic Orthodoxy
The Government of Philip II: Philip II (1556-1598), son of Charles I and Isabella of Portugal, ruled over a vast empire that reached its maximum expansion in the Americas. He strengthened royal power and centralized the monarchy, building upon the foundations laid by the Catholic Monarchs. Philip established a system of councils to advise him, including the Council of State, War, and Finance, and restructured territorial councils. He also reinforced the role of the corregidor, a royal representative controlling municipalities.
Defense of Catholic Orthodoxy
Philip championed the Counter-Reformation and combatted Protestantism. The presence of many conversos led to increased religious persecution, enforced by the Inquisition. The persecution of the Moriscos in Granada, who were forbidden to use their language, dress, and customs, sparked the Revolt of the Alpujarras (1567).
Philip III and IV: Decline of Spanish Hegemony
Philip III: The Government of the Valid
This era marked a new phase for the Spanish Habsburgs. Successive monarchs relinquished governmental duties to powerful ministers known as validos or privados. During Philip III’s reign, the Duke of Lerma held significant power. The most notable event was the expulsion of the Moriscos in 1609.
Philip IV: The End of Hegemony in Europe
Under Philip IV, Spain re-engaged in European conflicts, primarily due to involvement in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648). In Catalonia, rebels sought assistance from France, prolonging the war until 1652. Peace was finally established with France in 1659 with the Peace of the Pyrenees.