Character Analysis in Greek and Roman Classics
Oedipus as a Tragic Hero in Oedipus Rex
Sophocles’ Oedipus Rex is one of the greatest tragedies in classical literature, and its protagonist, Oedipus, embodies the essence of a tragic hero. According to Aristotle’s definition in Poetics, a tragic hero is a noble character with a tragic flaw (hamartia) that leads to his downfall, evoking pity and fear in the audience. Oedipus fits this definition perfectly, as his intelligence, determination, and sense of justice—qualities that make him a great king—ultimately contribute to his tragic demise.
Oedipus is introduced as a noble and capable ruler of Thebes, respected for his wisdom and leadership. His past accomplishments, including solving the riddle of the Sphinx, demonstrate his intelligence and courage. However, his relentless pursuit of truth and justice, which are his greatest strengths, become his weaknesses. When Thebes is struck by a plague, Oedipus vows to uncover the cause, not realizing that his search will lead to his own destruction. His tragic flaw lies in his excessive pride (hubris) and his inability to accept the possibility that he himself might be responsible for the city’s misfortune.
As the play progresses, Oedipus’s determination to find the murderer of King Laius brings him closer to an unbearable truth. Despite multiple warnings, he refuses to stop his investigation, believing that he is acting in the best interests of his people. His downfall is not due to evil intentions but rather to his relentless quest for knowledge and justice, which blinds him to the consequences of his actions. This irony is central to his tragedy—his intelligence leads him to a truth that destroys him.
Sophocles also highlights the role of fate and free will in Oedipus’s downfall. While the prophecy that Oedipus would kill his father and marry his mother was predetermined, it is Oedipus’s own actions, driven by his strengths, that bring it to fulfillment. His attempt to escape fate by leaving Corinth ironically leads him to Thebes, where he unknowingly kills his father and marries his mother. This paradox emphasizes that human efforts to defy fate can sometimes lead directly to its fulfillment.
Oedipus’s downfall evokes both pity and fear in the audience. We pity him because he is a good man who suffers a cruel fate, and we fear that we, too, might fall victim to circumstances beyond our control. His tragic realization (anagnorisis)—when he finally understands his true identity—marks the climax of the play. Overwhelmed by shame and guilt, he blinds himself, symbolizing both his past blindness to the truth and his new self-awareness.
Thus, Oedipus Rex is a tragedy because it portrays the downfall of a noble hero due to a flaw that is inseparable from his greatest strengths. Sophocles masterfully illustrates how human qualities, even virtues, can become weaknesses when taken to the extreme. Oedipus’s story serves as a timeless reminder of the fragile balance between fate and free will, the dangers of pride, and the painful consequences of seeking truth without considering its cost.
Euclio and Comedy in Plautus’s Pot of Gold
The Character of Euclio
Euclio, the central character in Plautus’s Aulularia (Pot of Gold), is a miserly old man whose defining trait is his obsessive greed. His character embodies the stereotypical miser, a figure of both humor and pity. His overwhelming concern for his hidden pot of gold dominates his actions and thoughts, leading him to paranoia and irrational behavior. His excessive suspicion of others, including his household servants and neighbors, drives much of the play’s comedic action. However, Euclio is not purely a villainous or unlikable figure. His obsession stems from the fear of losing his wealth rather than an innate desire to harm others. This makes him a tragicomic character—one whose flaws make him laughable but also somewhat sympathetic.
Euclio’s paranoia escalates throughout the play, as he misinterprets the intentions of others, assuming that everyone is after his treasure. His interactions with Megadorus, the wealthy but generous suitor for his daughter, are particularly revealing. He sees Megadorus’s offer of marriage as a ploy to steal his gold, rather than as a straightforward proposal. His refusal to spend money, even on his daughter’s dowry, highlights his extreme miserliness, making him a comic exaggeration of greed.
Despite his flaws, Euclio undergoes a form of transformation by the play’s end. Although the complete text of Aulularia is lost, it is generally believed that he eventually gives up his gold, either voluntarily or through external circumstances. This moment suggests a resolution to his obsessive greed, reinforcing the play’s comedic structure, where the protagonist learns a lesson and the social order is restored. His final act may redeem him somewhat, but his character remains an exaggerated figure of greed, making him a key source of humor in the play.
Pot of Gold as a Comedy and Euclio as a Comic Figure
Plautus’s Pot of Gold is undoubtedly a comedy, though it leans heavily on elements of satire and farce. The play follows the traditional structure of Roman comedy, incorporating mistaken assumptions, exaggerated characters, and a resolution that restores harmony. The humor largely arises from Euclio’s irrational fears and obsessive behavior, which lead him into absurd situations. His frantic attempts to safeguard his gold create comedic misunderstandings, a hallmark of Plautine humor.
Euclio himself functions as a comic figure primarily because of his extreme miserliness. His paranoia leads to slapstick situations, as he constantly spies on those around him and misjudges innocent actions as attempts to rob him. The audience finds humor in his exaggerated fear, much like in later miser characters such as Molière’s Harpagon in The Miser. His single-minded obsession with wealth makes him a stock character—the greedy old man—whose exaggerated flaws provide comedic entertainment.
However, Euclio also has tragic aspects. His wealth does not bring him joy but rather anxiety and social isolation. His daughter, Phaedria, suffers due to his miserliness, making him a figure of unintended cruelty. The comedy, therefore, is not just in his ridiculous actions but also in the irony that his greatest treasure brings him nothing but distress.
In conclusion, Pot of Gold is a comedy that uses the exaggerated flaws of its central character, Euclio, to create humor. Euclio is a classic comic figure, embodying both absurdity and social critique. His miserliness makes him laughable, but his ultimate redemption (if it occurs) suggests that comedy, in Plautus’s hands, also offers moral lessons.
The Story of Bacchus in Ovid’s Metamorphoses
In Ovid’s Metamorphoses Book 3, the story of Bacchus unfolds alongside the tragic fate of Pentheus, the king of Thebes, who refuses to acknowledge the new god’s divinity. The tale highlights themes of divine power, transformation, and the consequences of resisting the will of the gods.
The Birth of Bacchus
Bacchus, also known as Dionysus, is the son of Jupiter (Zeus) and the mortal princess Semele. Juno (Hera), enraged by her husband’s infidelity, plots against Semele. Disguised as an old woman, Juno manipulates Semele into doubting Jupiter’s true identity. She convinces her to demand that he reveal himself in his full divine form. Bound by his promise, Jupiter appears in all his thunderous glory. Unable to withstand the god’s power, Semele is consumed by fire. However, Jupiter rescues the unborn Bacchus by sewing him into his own thigh, carrying him to term. Thus, Bacchus is born a second time, earning the title of “twice-born.”
Pentheus’s Disbelief
After Bacchus grows up, he spreads his worship across the lands, bringing joy, ecstasy, and transformation through wine. However, when his cult reaches Thebes, Semele’s homeland, King Pentheus reacts with scorn and disbelief. He views Bacchus as an imposter and considers his followers, the Bacchantes (or Maenads), nothing more than drunken women indulging in chaos. Despite warnings from the blind prophet Tiresias, who tells him that resisting Bacchus will lead to his downfall, Pentheus remains stubborn. He forbids the worship of Bacchus in Thebes and vows to punish anyone who defies him.
The Tale of Acoetes
Determined to suppress Bacchus’s influence, Pentheus orders his men to capture one of the god’s followers. They bring him a prisoner named Acoetes, a Tyrrhenian sailor who claims to have personally witnessed Bacchus’s divine power.
Acoetes recounts his story: he and his fellow sailors once encountered a beautiful young boy on the shore. Believing him to be a wealthy noble, they captured him, intending to sell him as a slave. However, strange events unfolded—the ropes used to bind him would not hold, and wine flowed from the ship’s deck. When the sailors refused to release him, Bacchus transformed them into dolphins, sparing only Acoetes, who had recognized his divinity.
Pentheus, dismissing Acoetes’s warning as nonsense, orders him to be imprisoned and prepares to confront Bacchus himself.
Pentheus’s Tragic Fate
Ignoring all warnings, Pentheus disguises himself and sneaks onto Mount Cithaeron, where Bacchic rites are being held. However, once he arrives, the frenzied Maenads, including his own mother, Agave, mistake him for a wild animal—perhaps a lion or a boar. In their divine madness, they tear him apart limb from limb.
As the madness fades, Agave realizes to her horror that she has killed her own son. Bacchus’s prophecy is fulfilled, and Pentheus becomes an example of the terrible fate that befalls those who deny the gods.
Themes and Lessons
The story serves as a warning against arrogance and the rejection of divine power. Pentheus, blinded by hubris, resists change and suffers a gruesome end. Bacchus, the god of transformation, represents both chaos and liberation—forces that cannot be denied. Through Pentheus’s tragic fate, Ovid reinforces the idea that those who oppose the gods will ultimately be destroyed.
Conflict and Character in Homer’s The Iliad
The conflict between Agamemnon and Achilles in Homer’s The Iliad serves as a powerful exploration of the themes of honor and power, revealing significant insights into Agamemnon’s character and leadership.
Honor and Power
Clash of Values
- The core of the conflict revolves around the concept of timē, or honor. In ancient Greek society, particularly among warriors, honor was paramount.
- Achilles, the greatest warrior, feels deeply dishonored when Agamemnon, the leader of the Greek forces, takes his war prize, Briseis. This act is seen as a direct challenge to Achilles’s status and worth.
- Agamemnon, on the other hand, prioritizes his own authority and perceived right to command. He believes that his position as leader grants him the power to take what he desires, even if it means dishonoring a valuable warrior.
Power Dynamics
- The conflict highlights the tension between individual merit and hierarchical power. Achilles’s exceptional skill on the battlefield grants him immense prestige, but Agamemnon’s royal status gives him formal authority.
- Their struggle reveals the instability inherent in power structures, especially when those structures are challenged by individuals who possess extraordinary ability.
- This shows the difference between earned respect and demanded respect.
Consequences of Pride
- Both characters display significant pride, which fuels their conflict. Agamemnon’s arrogance leads him to abuse his power, while Achilles’s wounded pride causes him to withdraw from battle, with disastrous consequences for the Greek army.
Agamemnon’s Character and Leadership
Flawed Leadership
- Agamemnon’s actions reveal a lack of wisdom and strategic foresight. His decision to seize Briseis demonstrates a failure to understand the importance of maintaining the loyalty and morale of his most valuable warrior.
- His behavior suggests that he prioritizes his own ego over the well-being of his army.
Authoritarian Tendencies
- Agamemnon’s insistence on asserting his authority, even at the expense of justice and reason, highlights his authoritarian tendencies.
- He struggles to balance his role as a leader with the need to respect the individual contributions of those under his command.
Lack of Empathy
- Agamemnon shows a distinct lack of empathy for Achilles’s feelings. He fails to recognize the deep sense of dishonor that his actions inflict.
- This lack of empathy causes him to make poor choices that endanger the entire Greek force.
In essence, the conflict between Agamemnon and Achilles serves as a cautionary tale about the dangers of unchecked power and the importance of honor in a warrior culture.