Celtic, Roman, and Scandinavian Roots of the English Nation

Posted on Sep 29, 2025 in English Studies

The Foundations of Britain: Celts, Romans, and Language

The Early Inhabitants and Celtic Society

This section focuses on the early history of Britain. The origins of the Iberians are uncertain, leading to their designation. Historical records are sparse regarding whether they possessed ships, raising questions about how they crossed the Channel. The Irish, though lacking traditional ships, utilized a strange device for navigation, albeit without directional control.

The Celts originated in central southern Germany, the Netherlands, and surrounding areas, subsequently traveling south. Their migrations reached modern-day France, Italy, and extended as far as Turkey, as well as to Britain and Ireland. They established small sociological units, typically based on blood relations. This structure gave rise to common surname prefixes:

• Mac or Mc (meaning ‘son of’)
• O’ (meaning ‘descendant of’)

Warfare was central to Celtic culture; they frequently engaged in conflict, even fighting among themselves as a regular habit.

Roman Conquest and Cultural Impact

When Germanic tribes conquered a population, they often accepted the culture of the defeated group. This was not the case in Britain. The Germanic invaders defeated the native Celts, forcing them into areas like Scotland or elsewhere (if they were not killed). They refused to integrate or adopt Celtic culture, choosing instead to kill or expel the population.

Cities like London and York were originally Celtic settlements. Notably, many rivers retained Celtic names, such as the Thames.

Roman Expansion in Britannia

When Julius Caesar conquered Gaul, he secured the territory but was not interested in conquering Britain. Caligula, known for his instability, organized a full army to conquer Britannia but changed his mind en route and returned. Claudius, Caligula’s uncle, successfully decided to conquer Britain. The Romans defeated the local kings one by one, finding the soil useful for growing crops. To prevent ideological resistance, they destroyed sacred Celtic places, thereby limiting the potential for rebellion.

Emperor Hadrian later constructed a very strong wall (Hadrian’s Wall) to mark the northern frontier.

The Limits of Romanization

The Romanization, or Latinization, of Britain never fully succeeded because Mediterranean Romans preferred warmer climates like Hispania (Spain) and Italia, finding Britain too cold. The Romans constructed numerous fortresses throughout the territory. These fortresses, derived from the Latin word Castra, meaning ‘fortress’ or ‘camp’, left a lasting linguistic legacy in place names:

• -chester (e.g., Manchester)
• -cester (e.g., Leicester)
• -caster (e.g., Lancaster)

The Romans also built extensive road networks. Watling Street was a major Roman road that, according to some accounts, connected the territory of Wessex with Scandinavian areas (though Wessex was established later). Romans were highly civilized, living in cities and valuing luxury and personal care. They often built towns around thermal waters, as seen in places like Bath.

In London, the Romans established a major trade center, building the original wooden London Bridge across the Thames. This bridge was later pulled down by the Vikings. London was eventually repopulated from Essex, not Wessex. Maxim defeated the Picts, and a Celtic leader requested Roman help against other Celts in exchange for land.

Christianity and the Synod of Whitby

Roman civilization was initially pagan when they arrived in Britannia. The Celts were polytheistic, but those in contact with the Romans gradually became Christians. This period saw the rise of the first Christian martyrs in Britain. The presence of the name Patrick among Welsh individuals suggests a connection to Celtic or Roman civilization.

The Rechristianization of Britannia

At the beginning of the 5th century, the Romans were forced to withdraw. This led to a period of rechristianization in Britannia. The Franks were the first Germanic tribe to convert to Catholic Christianity.

Differences arose between the Irish and Roman Catholic traditions, particularly concerning monastic practices:

• Irish Monks: Shaved the front part of their hair (tonsure). Each monastery was autonomous and belonged to a specific clan, making Irish Catholics somewhat isolated units.
• Roman Monks: Shaved the back upper part of the head. The Roman administration was known for its perfect organization.

The Irish copied the Roman administrative model, applying it religiously (e.g., bishop above priest). A decision was needed on which model to follow. This decision was made at the Synod of Whitby in 663/664 CE, held in a town whose name ends in -by (a Scandinavian suffix).

At the Synod, they decided to accept the Roman Catholic model, which was also followed by Western Europe. This choice implied a more rational organization, including the Roman practice of codifying heritage in writing to avoid future disputes.

Linguistic Gifts from the Church

The Romans introduced the alphabet to the Germanic tribes, who previously used a system closer to rules than a true alphabet. Most letters in early texts are Latin. Christianization brought new Latin terms, particularly related to botany, as monks were often scientists who prepared medicines and drugs. They also introduced words by translating concepts from the Bible.

The Germanic tribes often sought a translation rather than accepting a foreign word directly:

• The Old English word synn (crime) was used to translate the Latin peccatum (sin/crime).
• Heofen (meaning ‘canopy’ or ‘vaulted roof’) translated the Latin caelum (heaven).
• Hell (meaning ‘cave’) translated the Latin infernum, as the Germanic tribes did not have a concept of hell.

The Scandinavian Impact (Vikings)

The Scandinavians, who named Iceland based on what they saw, began attacking Britannia from the northeast, reaching Ireland and Scotland. They targeted the Saxon Shore, a name dating back to the Roman period. The raid on Dorchester in 787 CE was significant; the native population mistook the Scandinavians for traders, resulting in slaughter, enslavement, and looting.

The Vikings destroyed two rich and culturally important monasteries, burning splendid hand-written books for the value of the materials they could sell. Northumbria, a center of culture, was devastated, as was Mercia.

Viking Raids and Settlements

Initially, Viking activity was characterized by ‘hit and run’ raids. To ‘go viking’ meant undertaking an expedition to steal and loot. The word Viki meant ‘bay’ or ‘inlet’. Eventually, they decided to settle in England and northwestern Europe. The term Rus, which gives us Russia, comes from ‘row’; Kiev was the first Scandinavian settlement, and its people were called Rus. They also settled in Sicily, Italy.

The Scandinavians occupied Northumbria and Mercia (which subsequently disappeared as a Christian center). They attempted to occupy Wessex but were stopped by King Aelfraed (Alfred the Great).

Alfred the Great and the Danelaw

The name Aelfraed derives from ælf (elf) and ræd (counsel), meaning ‘counsel of the elves’. Alfred was extremely intelligent, originally destined for the priesthood, but also a skilled warrior. He defeated the Scandinavians in 878 CE. Unable to expel them entirely, he negotiated a deal, allowing them to settle in specific areas. Consequently, two-thirds of the lands fell under Scandinavian control, known as the Danelaw (from Denelagu).

The Danelaw established a distinct legal system. They employed a law-speaker who knew the laws by heart and spoke in the common room, deciding guilt and punishment. The word law originally meant ‘custom’.

King Alfred remained independent in Wessex. Gradually, the kings of Wessex defeated the Scandinavians and reclaimed territory, culminating around 959 CE.

The Return of Raids and the End of Wessex

After losing territory, the Scandinavians reverted to ‘hit and run’ tactics, attacking cities, taking hostages, and demanding compensation. Danegeld was introduced as a regular tax intended to prevent these raids.

King Aethelread was known as ‘the Unready,’ a mistranslation of the Old English meaning ‘bad counsel’ or ‘ill-advised.’ On November 13, 1002, he ordered a genocide, attempting to kill all Scandinavians on English soil. In retaliation, the Scandinavians sailed back from Denmark and conquered the whole of England.

Alfred remains the only English king historically known as ‘the Great.’ By 1042, the kingdom of Wessex was restored under King Edward the Confessor. Being highly religious, he unfortunately had no natural heir. Following his death, the Witenagemot (assembly) chose the son of the most powerful earl of the aristocracy.

Surnames ending in -son (e.g., Godwinesson) are a Scandinavian influence, while the English equivalent for ‘son of’ was the suffix -ing.

Linguistic Legacy: Old Norse and Phonology

Palatalization and Velar Sounds

In Old English, a palatal vowel followed by a velar consonant (k, q, sk, skr) would often be palatalized (moved toward the front of the mouth). If a modern English word containing a velar sound in contact with a palatal vowel is pronounced as an occlusive (hard sound), it is likely a Scandinavian loanword (e.g., leg, kid).

In some cases, both the Scandinavian word and the Old English word survived, leading to semantic differentiation:

In other instances, the Old English word was abandoned. For example, the Old Norse Vindauga (‘the eye of the wind’) replaced the native term, giving us the modern word window.

During the Old English period, Scandinavians were considered the enemy, and borrowing words was rare. Admiration for their culture and language developed much later.

Runic Alphabet Comparison

The following table compares the Germanic (Gmc) and Old English (OE) runic names and meanings:

Metathesis and Phonological Shifts

Metathesis (or interversion) is the changing of places of sounds within a word. Examples include the Spanish blanco versus the Galician/Portuguese branco or granco. A common swap is the change in position of a letter, such as tiger becoming tigre, or the Old English acsian evolving to ascian, which eventually derived into the verb ask.

Later Linguistic Developments

The Age of Reason and Standardization

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Age of Reason established the rules that govern modern English writing.

Old English Verb Classes

Any verb ending in -ian belonged to the second class, except those whose stem ended in -r, which belonged to the first class. For example, saltian (stem: salt + ian) belonged to the second class. Saltian meant ‘to dance,’ likely referring to dancing by jumping to keep warm in cold regions.

The word sceolde evolved to schold and then to should; the ‘u’ hypothetically arose between the ‘o’ and the ‘l’. A similar phenomenon occurred with the French faute, leading to the English fault.

Old English Syntax

Like Latin, Old English was highly inflected. Grammatically, it lacked a passive voice and a future tense, using the present tense for future actions. Due to Latin influence, the lexical words willan (to wish/want) and sullan (should) arose. Old English allowed for a great deal of freedom in word order within sentences.

Latin Vocabulary and Adaptation

The Settlement Period and Latin Contact

The territory was previously Roman, leaving ruins like the city of Bath, which early inhabitants attributed to giants because they could not comprehend a city built solely for bathing.

Contact with the Latin language was maintained through the Celtic population in Southern England. King Ambrosious, possibly a Roman or military officer, was successful against the Germanic tribes.

Ecclesiastical Latin and Monastic Influence

The Christianization process introduced ecclesiastical Latin vocabulary. Benedictine monks, whose duties included study and work, introduced many words that were either purely Latin or Greek filtered through Latin. These words, corresponding to the Old English period, related to:

• Plants and botany
• Animals and zoology
• Medicine
• Astrology and astronomy

Words introduced later (around the 11th century) were not affected by phonological changes like palatalization, suggesting they were learned visually rather than aurally.

Adoption, Adaptation, and Translation

When borrowing a foreign word, three things can occur: the word refers to a physical object already present, or it refers to a metaphysical concept that is new.

1. Importation/Adoption: Leaving the word as it is if the concept is understood.
2. Adaptation: Modifying the morphology to fit the native language style.
3. Translation (Calque): Taking the word and translating its components into the native language.

For example, the Latin omnipotens was translated in Old English. Similarly, Prepositio (pre = before; positio = position) was adopted in Spanish but not translated. The Latin Unicornis was translated in Old English as anhorn (An = one; horn = cornis).

Syntactic Adaptation and Semantic Shifts

With Spiritus Sanctus (noun + adjective), the syntax was adapted to fit the native language structure. Sanctus originally meant ‘set apart’ or ‘chosen by God.’ The Old English equivalent was Halish (the radical hal gives us the modern word holy). Spiritus relates to the intake of air, metaphorically referring to an air entity; Ghost means spirit.

Phonological Evolution of ‘H’

The pronunciation of postvocalic ‘H’ depended on the preceding vowel:

• A palatal or front vowel + postvocalic H was pronounced like the ‘ch’ in German nicht.
• An open or back vowel + H was pronounced like the ‘ch’ in German Nacht.

This sound was represented by H, 3/h, or gh, which explains its presence in words like almighty. The sound was eventually lost through syncope, with exceptions such as tough, rough, and cough. The initial gh in words like Ghost does not follow the organic evolution of the word.

Substitution of Pagan Terms

Sometimes, a native word was substituted for a foreign concept. The Scandinavian Jul was replaced by the English Yuletide. Tide (meaning ‘time’ or ‘season’) was used because it was the easiest way to denote time. Jul was a winter god. Similarly, Easter was the name of a spring goddess.

Old Norse Phonology

The Old Norse word lagu, which was incorporated into Old English, had a ‘G’ pronounced like the Spanish ‘G’ between two vowels (as in agua). It is common for this ‘G’ sound to evolve into a ‘W’.

From the year 1000 CE onwards, many words were imported from Old French into Old English, such as capun.