Catholic Kings to Habsburgs: Spain’s 16th Century Transformation
The Reign of the Catholic Kings
In Spain, the modern age began with the reign of the Catholic Kings.
Union of the Crowns of Castile and Aragon
The dynastic union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon was the result of the marriage in 1469 of Elizabeth I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. It was a personal and dynastic unity, not institutional, as each kingdom still retained its institutions, laws, customs, language, currency, and customs. Only the kings had in common.
However, the personal union allowed to establish common goals: religious and territorial unity, strengthening of royal power against the nobility and towns, and foreign policy.
Concordia de Segovia: A document signed by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1504 which set the powers which he set up his government based on independence.
The Territorial and Religious Unification
Religious unity was carried out taking action against the Jews. First, they implant the court of the Inquisition (1479) and then drive out those who did not accept the conversion (1492). Muslims were also pressured to abandon their religion and customs. They were forced to choose between conversion or exile. Those who stayed were called Moriscos.
Tarascon: Muslims being baptized by the threat of expulsion by the Catholic Kings.
The Introduction of the Modern State
The Catholic monarchs strengthened the royal power, especially in Castile, since Aragon remained the wheeling and dealing. To accomplish this, the kings performed the following actions:
- Imposed authority. This referred to the higher nobility, controlled the assets of the Military Orders in the municipalities involved, poorly implemented and called magistrates to court.
- Improved management. They created councils or Hearings, improved tax collection and military created to serve the monarchy, as the Holy Brotherhood, who maintained order in rural areas, and a standing army, which culminated with the creation of thirds.
- They held a common foreign policy. Aragon recovered Naples, Sicily, Roussillon, and Sardinia, and Castilla conquered Melilla and Algiers. The Atlantic continued to expand in order to conquer the Canaries.
A tip: it is an institution created by the Catholic Kings formed by lawyers, I charge of dealing with affairs of the different kingdoms (Council of Castile and Aragon) or a specific matter of government (Council of finance and procurement)
The Hegemony of the Hispanic Monarchy
Hispanic Hegemony Under the Austrias
On the death of Ferdinand, from 1516, and the inability to govern her daughter became queen Juana Carlos, grandson of the Catholic Kings who was born and raised in the Netherlands. In Spain occurred in Australia or the Habsburg house.
In the sixteenth century, under the reigns of Charles I (1512-1556) and Philip II (1556-1598), the House of Austria imposed its hegemony in Europe. Charles I inherited a great European empire, was elected Emperor of Germany in 1510 and magnified their possessions by the conquest of extensive territories in America. Philip II inherited his Central European possessions of her father or was emperor, he had most territories the Philippines and the Kingdom of Portugal, with its huge colonial empire (1580).
Domestic Problems
Charles I, upon his arrival in Spain, unleashed strong opposition. He did not speak Castilian, gave the top jobs in Castile to foreigners; requested large sums of money to the courts to finance his election as emperor, and from Germany for this purpose to appoint a foreign ruler. This situation led to two riots early in his reign: that of the communities in Castile (1520-1521), and the Germanies in Valencia and Mallorca (1519-1523). Both were suffocated by the royal army.
Philip II faced two insurgencies. The Moriscos rebelled in the Alpujarras, Granada (1558) suffered by the pressures to abandon their religion and customs, and Aragon on the grounds that rebel king’s actions were against the privileges or duties. Both uprisings were suppressed.
External Problems
France, which was surrounded by the European possessions of the Habsburgs, was confronted with Charles I for control of northern Italy. The conflict was not resolved until the French defeat at the Battle of San Quentin (1557) by the army of Philip II.
The Turks threatened the empire in Central Europe and the Mediterranean, where they allied with North African pirates. Charles I held his expansion, but the problem was not solved until the Turkish defeat at Lepanto (1571) for its alliance of Spain, Venice, and the Pope.
The German princes, who converted to Lutheranism and desired autonomy, clashed with Carlos. After numerous wars, the Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognized the freedom of Germany. Since then, the religion of each state would be adopted by her prince.
The Northern Netherlands, converted to Protestantism and desiring autonomy, rebelled against Philip II in 1566. In 1579 he formed the United Provinces became independent in fact if not legally. In contrast, the Catholic Southern Netherlands remained under Spanish rule.
Protestant England supported the rebels of the Netherlands and attacks by Spanish privateers trade with Latin Invincible. Its failure in 1588, assumed great defeat of the Hispanic monarchy.
The Discoveries: The Extension of the Known World
In the late fifteenth century the world known to Europeans feel a huge increase as a result of geographical discoveries Portuguese and Castilian. The causes of type line findings were:
- Policies: Terminate the reconquest, Portugal and Spain had further territorial ambitions.
- Economics: He wanted to directly access the gold from Sudan and find a sea route to bring spices and luxury goods from India and China, as the traditional route through Asia, the Mediterranean was closed after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks.
- Science and religion: books were disseminated argued that the earth was round and smaller than its actual size as Ptolemy’s Geography.
- Ideological and religious: the new mentality of the era promoted the thirst for adventure, fame and wealth, coupled with the desire to spread the faith by new territories.
- Techniques: improvement of the sea with the generalization of the compass and the astrolabe; progress mapping using portolan or charts and new ships were built as the caravel and the galleon.
Portuguese Voyages of Exploration
From mid-fifteenth century, Portugal tried to access the gold from Sudan and trade with India along the African coast. The rivalry with Castile in this area was solved with the signing of the Treaty of Alcaçovas. In it, Portugal was down to the conquest of the Canary Islands Castile and Castile accepted the exploration of the African coast of Portugal south of Cape Bojador.
In subsequent voyages of exploration driven by Prince Henry the Navigator joined the Portuguese Azores and Madeira islands cape verde. After passing the cavo Bojador tas, reached the Gulf of Guinea doubled the Cape of Good Hope (1487) and Basque Gama arrived in India (1498)
In the islands on the African coast to trade and slavery in Sudan and monopolized the spice trade with India and China silk.
The discovery of America was due to Christopher Columbus. This possibly caused Genoese sailor, a project to reach India by sailing the west after being rejected by John II of Portugal, he offered to the Catholic Kings. They accepted it and signed with Columbus capitulations of Santa Fe.
The draft colon was based on the existence of a single ocean and the sphericity of the earth.
Columbus sailed from Palos (Huelva) and, after a stop in the Canary Islands, arrived on 12 October from 1492 to the island of Guanahani, which he named San Salvador. Before returning found Juana (Cuba) and Spanish (Dominican Republic) Died in 1506, convinced he had bequeathed to India. Therefore, the new territories were known as the Indies. So the new territories were known as the Indian and its inhabitants were called Indians.
Consequences: The Cast of the World
Catholic Kings received the pope’s sovereignty over the lands discovered by Columbus. To avoid conflicts with Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas, which drew a meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde islands. The land west of this line would be for castilla, and to the east to Portugal. As a result, Portugal was established in Brazil in 1500.
Other sailors explored the lands of America: Amerigo Vespucci visited the South American coast (1499-1500) and was the first to recognize America as a new continent, Nunez de Balboa crossed on foot the Isthmus of Panama (1513) and discovered the South Sea or Pacific Ocean, and Ferdinand Magellan and Juan Sebastián Elcano took the first round the world (1519-1522) showing that the earth was round.
The Conquest and the Organization of America
The Phases of the Conquest
In the sixteenth century proceeded to the conquest of the Americas, conducted mostly between 1520 and 1545.
Initially joined the great American Empire: Hernan Cortes conquered the Aztec Empire (1516-1521) after taking their capital Tenochtlan, and take prisoner King Montezuma, and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca empire after execute Atahualpa, last king Trail and take Cuzco (1533)
In a second phase joined the rest of Central and South America (excl. Brazil) South America north (Florida, Texas, California) and Philippine Islands, Asia (1571). Large areas of North America remained unconquered, allowing occupation by other European countries.
Characteristics of Conquest
The conquest was the work of individuals, mostly gentlemen of the lower nobility and being humble hoped to improve his fortune. Received were the Crown a capitulation, or authorization to conquer a certain area in exchange for concessions go, and a royal instructions, or rules of engagement.
The conquest was swift, thanks to the superior weaponry of the conquistadors armatures using firearms and horses, animals unknown to the Indians whom they accused terror. Internal crisis also contributed to the Aztec and Inca empires conquerors allowed to ally with the subject peoples, the identification of the conquerors of the conquerors to gods whose religious prophecies announcing the return of the Indians and the spreading of epidemics among the indigenous population unknown (influenza, smallpox, etc.).
Government and Administration of the Indian
After the conquest, the <> Castilla joined, as these had put the crown material and human resources for the discovery and conquest. Therefore, its government and administration were inspired by the Castilian model.
The Indian board, a new agency created in 1524, controlled from Castile American affairs and Indian laws drafted specific legislation to the New World.
The house recruitment, founded in 1503, organized from Seville American trade.
The territorial administration was based on division of territory in viceroyalties (New Spain and Peru). Large areas ruled by viceroys or direct representatives of the king, governors, by a municipality or province. For the administration of justice were created Hearings.
Economic Exploitation of Indian
The main economic activities developed in America were mining, agriculture, livestock and trade.
Mining exploited gold deposits and, above all, the rich silver mines of Mexico (Zacatecas) and Peru (Potosi) through the mita system of forced labor or employee of the Indians.
Agriculture and livestock led to the creation of large agricultural estates (haciendas) and ranches (estancias), worked by Indians through the encomienda system. This involved the distribution of the Indians among the conquerors who, in return to Christianity, received a tribute or forced labor. In areas with few indigenous black African slaves were used.
The trade with the Indians was a Castilian monopoly exercised by the port of Seville. He organized two annual expeditions, calls <>, who traveled to America, escorted by warships and, after trade, returning to Spain.
Implications of the Conquest of America
American societies and Castilian noticed the impact of his encounter in all aspects: political, demographic, economic, social and cultural development.
To the American peoples, the conquest meant the disappearance of their empires and the imposition of Castilian organization, a huge population decline due to infection among the Indians of unknown diseases in America and forced labor, the introduction of new agricultural products and to forced labor, the introduction of new European agricultural products (wheat, barley, oats, grapes and olives) or (Asian) (coffee and sugar grown on plantations), supply of new animals (horses, cows, pigs and poultry), the social subordination of the Indians, and the replacement of their religions and cultural rights by the conquerors.
In Castile, the American conquest financed the hegemony of Europe in the sixteenth century was a coded migration between 2 000 and 3 000 departures per year, brings new plants and foodstuffs (maize, potato, tomato, cocoa and snuff), trade development ; provoked a strong debate on the exploitation of the Indians, as this aroused the protest of some monks, as Antonio de Montesinos and Bartolomé de las Casas, and drive the development of certain sciences such as cartography, geography or biology.
The Government, the Economy and Society under the Habsburgs
The Organization of the Monarchy Hispanica
The Hispanic monarchy was conceived as an association of states that retained its own institutions, laws and customs, with the common link to the sovereign. The authoritarian monarchy remained, as did the system of governance through regional and thematic advice. In each territory the king was represented by a viceroy, except in the Netherlands where he had ruled with sweeping powers,
The army was of great importance, due to continuous wars. He earned numerous victories thanks to their organization into thirds. The huge military expenditures necessitated borrowing, which creates a growing indebtedness.
The Population Grew and Economic Activities
The population grew in the sixteenth century reached 7.8 million people Castile, with 6.1 million, was the most populated realm and I endure and I bear the economic weight of European empire
The Castilian economy passing through a phase of expansion in the first half of the sixteenth century especially, thanks to metals prices coming from America. Instead the Crown of Aragon experienced a downturn due to the trade crisis Catalan and Valencian to the displacement of this activity over the Atlantic Ocean.
Agriculture acreage expanded through increased population and demand for products. However, Castillo continues to dominate the sheep, whose wool is destined mainly for export.
The craft rose in the first half of the sixteenth century by rising American demand, however, was losing its competitiveness on foreign production because of higher technological backwardness, their increasing technological backwardness, its lower quality and consideration as activity dishonorable. So Infiltration foreign products on the market in the Spanish and Indian.
The trade deficit with Europe was therefore exported raw materials and imported manufactures. Trade with America was a Castilian monopoly that excluded other peninsular territories. Spaniards and foreigners sold re-exported items (food, livestock, weapons, textiles and consumer goods) in exchange for precious metals and colonial products (cocoa, coffee, sugar, snuff, cotton). However, their benefits will not be used to improve agriculture and handicrafts, but commercial debt to finance wars with Europe.
Spanish Society in the Sixteenth Century
Privileged groups, the nobility and clergy were subject to royal authority, the nobility was limited to office appointed by the king in diplomacy, and the clergy suffered the monarchy to intervene in their affairs through the right of presentation of candidates for ecclesiastical offices. However, both estates maintained their privileges, their social prestige and economic power.
The third stage comprised mainly of farmers continued. The bourgeoisie had little development since the establishment of an aristocratic mentality as an ideal way of life nobility and despised trade and craft activities.
The Culture and the Arts
The XVI Century Spanish Culture
The sixteenth century home the most flourishing stage of Spanish culture, known as the golden age that lasted through the seventeenth century.
Education attained great importance in the universities of Alcalá de Henares, Salamanca and Valladolid, and in schools founded by the Jesuits where he instructed the children of nobles.
The growing literature Italian poetry with figures such as Garcilaso de la Vega and theater that caught on. Were also initiated two kinds of great importance later: the picaresque with Lazarillo de Tormes and mysticism of St. Teresa of Jesus and St. John of the Cross.
The Art of the Renaissance in Spain
The spread of the renaissance in Spain was aided by contacts with Italy, where Spain had possessions, which facilitated the arrival of artists from this country travel for training of Spanish artists and the arrival of prints and engravings. In addition, the new style had the impulse of some Spanish bishops but full acceptance was slowed by the influence of the Gothic.
Renaissance Architecture
Renaissance architecture went through three periods or styles: Plateresque purist and Herrera.
The Plateresque (1500-1530) was characterized by buildings that remained in many cases the Gothic style in the interior, but the facade coated with Renaissance decoration. This included medallions, badges and grotesques made with such detail the work of a silversmith from which the style name. Its main facade is the University of Salamanca and San Macos de Leon.
The purist style (1530-1560) adopted the Renaissance building elements and simplified and reduced the size of the decoration. The main buildings are the palace of Charles V in Granada, the palace of Monterrey in Salamanca and the facade of the University of Alcala de Henares.
The style of Herrera (1560-1600) took its name from its most famous architect Juan de Herrera. It is characterized by simplicity of form slate roofing exterior lass with remarkable decorative tilt and nudity. The most important building was the palace-monastery of El Escorial commissioned by Philip II in 1563 to celebrate the victory at San Quentin on French.
The Renaissance Sculpture and Painting
Renaissance sculpture initially copying the Italian forms. After I create a unique style, characterized by the importance of polychrome wood carvings. It was a realistic sculpture, religious-themed mainly focused on the choir altarpieces and tombs. The most famous sculptors were Berruguete Alonso and Juan de Juni, who worked in Valladolid and Toledo.
Alonso de Berruguete was formed in Italy in the art of painting and sculpture. Technique not too perfect his figures were characterized by low volume and nerve his most famous being the sacrifice of Isaac, the choir stalls of the Cathedral of Toledo and the tomb of Cardinal Tavera.
Juan de Juni, possible French origin settled in Spain about 1533 settling in Valladolid. His sculpture is characterized by its technical perfection and the taste for muscular, monumental forms and extensive are the Entombment of the Virgin of the anguish and the portrait of the Holy Burial.
Renaissance painting was influenced by the great Italian masters. The Spanish artists mainly cultivated a religious theme case of Juan de Juanes and Luis de Morales.
In the second half of the sixteenth century was the most outstanding painter Domenico Theotocopoulos Cretan, called El Greco (1541-1616) for his birthplace. Before coming to Spain was in Venice and Rome, where he acquired a taste for color. He settled permanently in Toledo in 1577.
The Beginning of the Modern Age in Castilla y Leon
The Time of the Catholic Kings
The succession struggle between the Beltraneja Juana, daughter of Henry IV of Castile, and Isabella, sister of the king, became a showdown between the councils and the nobility. The nobility and gentry sought to support the Catholic Kings. The Portuguese king, Alfonso V, who supported Jane, take care Toro (Zamora) in 1475
A year later, the Spaniards, with the help of Aragon defeated the Portuguese at the Battle of Bull and ensured the triumph of Elizabeth, but will not stop fighting until the signing of Treaty Alcacobas in 1479.
The union of the Castilian and Aragonese monarchies did not mean, however, the union of the kingdoms that laws and institutions remained independent. Granada, Navarre and the Indies were under the authority of Castile, Aragon no part in American business.
XVI Century
During the sixteenth century in the lands of Castile and Leon now enjoyed a period of economic, social and cultural development.Charles I came to Spain with the intention of achieving the greatest possible amount of resources to finance his imperial policy. The increase in taxes caused a number of general discontent and the rise of communities of Castile. Toledo, under the orders of Juan de Padilla, rebelled in 1520, joining Segovia, Salamanca, Avila, Tardecillas (Valladolid) and other locations. Other leaders of the uprising were Juan Bravo and Francisco Maldonado, who formed the government of the rebels, the Holy Assembly.
The requests of the villagers were, inter alia, that the king did not impose more taxes to Castile with its European possessions destination, they learned Spanish and Castilian appoint their European possessions, he learned Spanish and Castilian to appoint to the posts leaders. Before the king’s refusal to negotiate, commoners offered the crown to the king’s mother, Dona Juana, who was imprisoned in the castle of Tordesillas proposal rejection.
The war between the armies of the king and the commoners with the first victory at the Battle of Villalar near Tordesillas, 23 April 1521. Charles I ordered to execute the movement’s leaders established a strong community member and control of the monarchy were met. The king changed its policy and, thereafter, Castilla became the center of imperial policy for your company.
Economy and Society in the Sixteenth Century
The economic prosperity that was experienced in the sixteenth century affected sectors. Agriculture production increased by increasing the cultivated land. The new land clearing and logging allowed to obtain higher yields of grain and grapes. Livestock remained the predominant major grain crops and grapes. Livestock maintained dominance in the Mesta, the transhumance of herds towards Extremadura.
The textile industry had its most important focus in Segovia. Their looms used the wool to make cloth. Other leading textile centers were Avila, Palencia and Zamora .. But much of Castilian wool cloths were exported in competition with the Castilian-Leonese. The growth of economic activity seen in the rise of the fair, occupying a prominent place of the Medina del Campo.
The population increased from 1400000 to 1800000 habitually. Population density, 20 inhabitants per sq km, was one of the highest in Spain. Bourgeoisie emerged a small but very active and took care of business and lending to the nobility and the crown. The most important city was Valladolid, seat of the chancery, which had a tribunal of the Inquisition and a university. The school highlight was the University of Salamanca.
Art Events
The sixteenth century was a heyday for art. In architecture, as well as the latest manifestations of Gothic art, as are the cathedral of Segovia and Salamanca, Renaissance paintings were made. The style is the most prominent plateresque. Salamanca is a city where there are more examples like the facade of the university’s home shells and the church of St. Stephen, in Leon, a leading hospital in San Marcos, in Zamora the palace of the Counts of Alba de Liste and Burgos the golden staircase of the cathedral.
In sculpture stand Berruguete Alonso and Juan de Juni school of Valladolid, Alonso Berruguete, he met Michelangelo, creating works that show the influence of the Italian genius as the Retablo de San Benito in Valladolid. Juan de Juni in French settled in this city and highlighted with works such as Christ’s burial or altarpieces such as the Cathedral of Burgo de Osma (Soria)
In painting Berrguete said Peter, father of the sculptor. In Paredes de Nava (Palencia), his hometown, is kept the Altarpiece of the Virgin. One of his most famous works is the Auto de Fe Also noteworthy was the high altar of Palencia, with paintings by Juan de Flanders.