Castilian and Aragonese Political, Economic, and Territorial Evolution
Political Organization in the Kingdom of Castile
Royalty
The king held supreme authority, considered to be “by the grace of God.” His power was understood to derive from the people, with God as the ultimate source. The people, represented by privileged classes, were seen as the intermediary between God and the king. Succession to the throne in León followed a hereditary principle, favoring male succession (eldest son, then the second child, and so on). In the absence of a male heir, women could inherit, exercising sovereignty through a representative (husband). From the 13th century, succession imposed a direct line by primogeniture: upon the death of the eldest son, succession passed to his children, not to the king’s other children. Women could be queens in their own right, but after the union with Catalonia and Aragon, Salic law was imposed, excluding women from succession. The king held the three powers, but his absolute power was limited by the laws of the realm, the estates, and the Law of God.
The government institutions of the kingdom:
Curia Regia
This was the king’s family, composed of magnates and royal palace officials. Its responsibilities included internal affairs of the royal house (inheritance, marriage, dowries), public affairs (military campaigns, granting and confirming privileges, appointment of officials), and judiciary matters (judging court cases). Meetings were both ordinary and extraordinary. Regular meetings were frequent and were the antecedent of the Royal Council. Extraordinary meetings were convened only in cases of great importance, eventually leading to the Cortes.
Royal Council
This served as the central government. It was composed of trained lawyers or legal scholars, military leaders, the foreign minister, the steward of each kingdom, and the waiter. It was a permanent consultative body for the kings and the administration of the kingdom.
Courts
These derived from the Extraordinary Curia, to which representatives from the cities were added. Initial functions included control of coinage (to prevent inflation). High competition in Castile led to special tax concessions ordered by the king to change the representatives of cities (only those paying). The king demanded the enactment of certain laws. In Aragon, new institutions arose to control revenues approved in Courts: the Diputación General or Generalitat of Catalonia and the Diputación General de Aragón. The Courts played an important role in the proclamation of the heir and the swearing-in of the new king.
Directors of Finance
Accountants kept the royal treasury accounts. In Aragon, there was a separation between the king’s money and the kingdom’s money. Money given by the king in each kingdom was managed by the general bayle, and the coin of the realm was administered by the Diputación General.
Territorial Administration of Justice
Merindades
The highest authority was a regional delegate called merino, who collected taxes, mobilized troops, and was the highest judicial body. In Aragon, these were called vegueries.
Overtaking
These were very similar to merindades; the front was a front (high nobility).
Audience
This was the highest court in both criminal and civil matters, headed by a chancellor. It was formed by seven judges and followed the king on his journeys.
Local Government: Councils and Lordships
Councils
These were assemblies of all the neighbors to address common issues. Initially open, they became restricted from the 12th century, presided over by a judge assisted by mayors elected by the council, lord, or both. In Aragon, from the 12th century, they became restricted meetings chaired by a zalmedina appointed by the king, assisted by local notables, consuls, and judges. By the end of the Middle Ages, mayors became hereditary, and aldermen were called regidores.
Domains
These were of two classes: land owned by a lay lord (ancestral) or religious (Episcopalian, of abadengo, etc.). The jurisdiction was the territory over which a lord exercised his authority, which could not be master of the territory. Lords took on almost the same functions as the king (appointments of officers, sanitation, tax collection) and even military functions (recruiting soldiers).
Demographic, Economic, and Political Crisis
The 14th century saw a great crisis affecting all Western European countries, including the Spanish kingdoms.
Demographic Crisis
- Mass mortality occurred due to the Black Death. The number of deaths is unknown: 1/5 of the population in Catalonia and Aragon, and ½ of the population in Portugal.
- The impact of the plague included uncultivated land, increased debt, reduced revenue in the treasury due to a lack of taxpayers, a lack of people to fill jobs, and empty convents.
- The lack of manpower led to the slave trade. Jews were also blamed for the crisis.
Economic Crisis
The Black Death wiped out almost everything, with uncultivated land due to a lack of laborers and potential consumers, and expensive products. Overcoming the disease led to a scarcity of workers, causing wage increases, which in turn led to price increases, implying a devaluation of currencies. In Catalonia, where the main economic activity was trade, regression began, and protectionism was practiced.
Political Crisis
The economic crisis caused the hereditary succession of the Crown to be on the verge of breaking. Kings who were not legitimate children assumed the throne to please the nobility, who had to make major concessions.
Religious Crisis
This began with the removal of the papal court from Rome to Avignon, reaching its climax in 1378 when two popes were elected. Castile and Aragon supported the Avignon pope, while Navarra initially supported the Pope in Rome and then moved to Avignon, and Portugal did the reverse. This led to a loss of faith in God’s Providence, illicit enrichment, concubinage, falsification of bulls, and the selling of sacraments.
The Expansion of the Crown of Aragon in the Mediterranean
The Crown of Aragon could not conquer new territories in Spain due to the Treaty of Almizra, but the nobility needed wars to increase their income, leading to expansion in the Mediterranean. This also served to strengthen and expand Catalan trade. Catalan trade exported cloth, leather, wool, salt, guns, and even slaves, while importing spices.
With Peter III, Mediterranean expansion began: he was proclaimed king of Sicily. Alfonso III waived his claim in exchange for Mallorca. Jaime II became King of Sicily when he succeeded his brother in Aragon. Alfonso III resigned from Sicily and Majorca, and in exchange, received back the rights to the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Pedro IV focused on four areas: Mallorca, Sardinia, Sicily, and the duchies of Athens and Neopatria, which were later lost by John I. Alfonso V took over Naples. King John II of France gave him 200,000 crowns and received Roussillon and Cerdanya as a pledge. As John II was unable to repay the loan, both territories became sovereign French. He was succeeded by his son Ferdinand II, who was king consort of Castile by the name of Ferdinand V (the Catholic).