Carlos I and Felipe II: Reigns and Conflicts
Carlos I: Heir of an Empire
By his mother’s side, he inherited the kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, Aragon, the Italian territories, and American possessions. By his father’s side: the Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Franche-Comté, and the German possessions of the Habsburgs after the death of his grandfather.
Internal Problems
Carlos I arrived on the peninsula in 1517 without speaking Castilian and surrounded by Flemish advisors. In 1520, he left for Germany due to riots that occurred.
The Revolt of the Comuneros (1520-1521)
Emerged in several Castilian cities in protest by nobles, artisans, and traders regarding economic policy and lack of respect for the laws of the kingdom. The conflict spread, and peasant revolts took on an anti-seigneurial character. The Comunero army was defeated by imperial troops at Villalar, and its main leaders, Padilla, Bravo, and Maldonado, were executed.
The Germanias (1521-1523)
Erupted in the Crown of Aragon, with the most serious incidents taking place in Valencia and Mallorca. It was a riot of artisans and peasants who demanded access to municipal offices and better leases for peasants. They appealed to the king to defend them, but Carlos I allied with the nobility, who won in 1523.
External Conflicts
The defense of imperial and Catholic authority led Carlos I to maintain numerous wars.
- First, against France (1525-1544), his great rival throughout Europe. He fought on numerous occasions with the French monarch Francisco I, whom he defeated at the Battle of Pavia.
- Besides, he waged war against the Turks (1529-1541), who threatened the Danube and the Mediterranean.
- The most significant conflict was caused by the support from the main German states for Luther and his confrontation with the political authority of the emperor. In 1540, a long series of religious wars began. Despite his initial success, the emperor finally had to accept the Peace of Augsburg, establishing equality between Catholicism and Protestantism and religious liberty for German states.
The Government of Felipe II
Felipe II (1556-1598) reigned over a vast empire that reached its maximum expansion, excluding the German dominions. The monarch personally took charge of the government from Madrid, which became the capital in 1561. He built the Escorial, a royal residence and seat of power for the monarch. The government grew and stressed centralization. All decisions emanated from the king, who was assisted by a legion of staff (bureaucracy) and a comprehensive system of advisory councils.
Defense of Catholic Orthodoxy
In the peninsula, Felipe II imposed the spirit of the Counter-Reformation and countered Protestantism. The existence of many converts still favored religious persecution. To this end, the action of the Inquisition was imposed. He also imposed the concept of purity of blood, which prevented those who had Jewish or Muslim ancestors from holding office. The most serious problems were caused by the persecution of the Moors from Granada, which culminated in the Revolt of the Alpujarras (1567). It was suppressed after three years of struggle, and some 80,000 Moors were dispersed to other areas of the peninsula.
Foreign Policy
Felipe II aimed to maintain political hegemony and impose Catholicism in Europe:
- Continuing the war with the French, whom he finally defeated at the Battle of San Quentin (1557).
- To curb Muslim expansion in the Mediterranean, he organized a large allied fleet (the Papacy, Venice, and Spain) to face the Turks, whom he defeated at the Battle of Lepanto (1571).
- Against England, which gave support to the Protestants and attacked the Spanish fleet that traded with America, he sent a huge fleet, the Spanish Armada (1588), which was destroyed by a storm near the English coast.
The biggest problem was the revolt of Flanders, caused by unhappiness with heavy taxes and religious conflicts. Discomfort provoked a strong nationalist sentiment that ended in an insurrection (1566) led by William of Orange. His greatest overseas success was the annexation of Portugal (1581) as a result of intermarriage between the two royal families.