Cánovas Restoration Era: Political Structure and Electoral Practices
Features of the Cánovas Restoration System
The Cánovas Restoration system, a copy of the British model, was based on several key pillars:
The Monarchy: A Permanent Institution
For Cánovas, the King was a permanent institution whose role could not be questioned. His function was to act as a referee in political life, ensuring proper understanding and the peaceful alternation of power between political parties.
The Cortes: Backbone of the Nation
The Cortes (Parliament) were also considered a permanent institution, forming, along with the King, the backbone of the nation.
Bipartisanship: Power Sharing
The system relied on bipartisanship, with two large parties sharing power: the ideologically conservative party and the essentially liberal party. They coincided in their fundamental goals and adopted complementary roles. Both parties had a significant number of newspapers and political centers distributed throughout Spanish territory.
The Army: Civilian Supremacy
Cánovas sought to distance the Army from political intervention. He therefore established the supremacy of civilian authority over the military. However, he allowed for a degree of military autonomy and absolute freedom in internal military affairs, while simultaneously enhancing the identification of the King as a symbol and head of the army. Nevertheless, the process of depoliticization of the army was more apparent than real, and the autonomy of military power eventually became an instrument of pressure on civilian life.
The Turno Pacífico: Party Alternation
The Turno Pacífico (Peaceful Turn) was a tacit agreement between the Conservative and Liberal parties to alternate in power. The King would instruct the head of the majority party to form a government. When a government suffered wear and tear, it would resign, giving way to the other party. The King could also dissolve Parliament and call new elections. This system was maintained through electoral fraud and caciquil mechanisms that ensured outcomes were always favorable to the government in power.
Electoral Fraud: The Cacique Network
Electoral fraud was orchestrated through a sophisticated Cacique network. The Minister of the Interior controlled the electoral process, working with the local Caciques. The Minister would elaborate a list of candidates who were to be elected, which was then passed to mayors and Caciques. Caciques were influential individuals or families who, due to their power or political influence, controlled a specific electoral area. Their influence was most evident in rural areas.
Methods of Electoral Rigging
Methods of electoral rigging included:
- Vote buying.
- Preventing the deceased from voting and allowing the living to vote multiple times.
- Falsifying records.
- Using coercive practices against the electorate.
This systematic falsification of election results led many parties and citizens to abstain from voting due to disenchantment with the manipulation. It is estimated that only 20% of the population voted, reflecting the oligarchy of the Restoration directing the country’s political life with widespread political apathy.
The Moderate Constitution of 1876
The Constitution of 1876 was characterized by its moderate nature, partly inspired by the 1845 Constitution. Its aim was to create a framework that any party could govern under without needing to change it, making it very ambiguous. It was a more open constitution where the defense of traditional values, such as religion, family, and property, was consistent with the medium-term incorporation of some democratic principles from the 1868 ideology. This document clearly reflected Cánovas’s political thought.
Sovereignty and Executive Power
- Sovereignty: Resided jointly in the King and the Cortes (reflecting doctrinaire liberalism).
- Executive Power: The King was considered above any political decision but was granted a number of privileges, including the right to veto legislation, sharing legislative power with the Cortes, and appointing ministers.
Flexibility, Tolerance, and Confessional State
- Flexibility and Tolerance: The constitution aimed for adaptability.
- Confessional State: Catholicism was the official religion, but respect for other religions was maintained, though public manifestations of non-Catholic faiths were not permitted. Worship and the clergy were financially supported by the state.
Legislative Power and Suffrage
Legislative Power: Resided in the Cortes, along with the King. The Cortes were bicameral, consisting of a Senate and a Congress of Deputies. The constitution retained the right to declaration of rights similar to that of 1869, which was very broad. However, its application was referred to ordinary laws which tended to restrict fundamental rights such as freedom of the press, expression, association, and assembly.
Initially, census suffrage was in place. Universal male suffrage was reinstated in 1890. Despite these provisions, the democracy functioned only nominally.