Canadian Regional Geography and Economic Landscapes

Posted on Jan 28, 2026 in Geography and History

Geographic Regions and Political Faultlines

Canada is divided into several geographic regions: the Atlantic, Quebec, Ontario, Western Canada, British Columbia, and the Territorial North. These areas are defined by their location, regional identity, history, population, and economy. According to Simpson (1993), the country is characterized by faultlines—economic, social, and political divides that may remain dormant but have the potential to erupt.

In terms of political culture, Canada is often described as a “soft” state characterized by compromise, whereas the United States is seen as “hard” with less room for compromise. Regionalism is heavily influenced by geography and politics, often manifesting as regional control over resources and federal-provincial feuds. Central Canada’s definition of the “national interest” frequently leads to Western alienation and feuds between provinces.

The Quebec Faultline and Immigration

The Quebec faultline is rooted in the French language and culture, supported by the Official Languages Act of 1974 and Bill 21 (2019). There are also strong concerns regarding emissions and environmental policy. Immigration remains a point of contention; while newcomers bring diverse cultures, languages, and religions, these are sometimes met with resistance in Quebec, as seen in the restrictions of Bill 21.

Economic Models: Core and Periphery

According to Friedmann (1966), capitalism leads to uneven regional growth, creating a core/periphery dynamic:

• Core: Ontario and Quebec (manufacturing centers).
• Fast-growing Periphery: British Columbia and Western Canada (resource-rich).
• Slow-growing Periphery: Atlantic Canada (resource-dependent).
• Resource Frontier: The Territorial North (rich in resources but often economically unviable).

Limits to this model include its tendency to overlook political and social problems, ignore regional changes, and remain too general (such as ignoring the differences between Northern and Southern Ontario). Furthermore, continentalism highlights the close trade relationship between Canada and the United States.

Physical Geography and Landform Processes

While physical geography studies the natural world, regional geography focuses on the interaction between people and the physical environment, including how geography affects settlement and how people change the environment.

• Landforms: Mountains, plateaus, and lowlands.
• Denudation: The wearing down of mountains.
• Weathering: The breaking down of rock.
• Erosion: The movement of particles via air, ice, or water.
• Deposition: The buildup of eroded material.

Canada’s Seven Physiographic Regions

A physiographic region is a large area of the Earth’s crust with similar features, geomorphic processes, and geological structure. Glaciation has shaped most of Canada.

• Canadian Shield: The largest region; rocky, rolling uplands shaped by glacial erosion and deposition (features include drumlins, eskers, and glacial striations). Rich in minerals.
• Cordillera: Mountains, plateaus, and valleys (including 16% of the Rockies). Formed by tectonic uplift; geologically unstable (earthquakes, tsunamis).
• Interior Plains: A stable sedimentary plain. Once a shallow inland sea, sediments formed sedimentary rock and fossil fuels.
• Hudson Bay Lowlands: The youngest region, formed by marine sedimentary deposits 10,000–12,000 years ago. Mostly muskeg (peat).
• Arctic Lands: Located north of the Arctic Circle; includes coastal plains, plateaus, and mountains (Arctic Platform, Coastal Plain, and Innuitian Mountain Complex). Characterized by permafrost.
• Appalachian Uplands: Comprising 2% of Canada; the northern part of the Appalachian Mountains, worn down by erosion. Highest elevations are in the Gaspé Peninsula.
• Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands: The economic and population core (ecumene). Features a flat-to-rolling landscape.

Climate Factors and Drainage Basins

Climate is influenced by latitude (North/South of the equator) and longitude (East/West of the Prime Meridian). Core factors include solar energy, global circulation systems, marine and continental air masses, and the continentality effect (land heating and cooling faster than oceans).

Precipitation types:

• Convectional: Warm air rises, cools, and condenses.
• Frontal: Warm and cold air masses meet.
• Orographic: Air is forced over mountains, creating a rain shadow effect on the leeward side.

Canada features seven climate regions: Pacific, Cordillera, Prairies, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence, Atlantic, Subarctic, and Arctic. Permafrost covers two-thirds of the country (continuous, discontinuous, sporadic, and alpine).

Major Drainage Basins

• Atlantic Basin.
• Hudson Bay Basin: The largest; vital for Canadian Shield hydroelectricity.
• Arctic Basin: Dominated by the Mackenzie River; longest coastline but few hydro projects due to distance from markets.
• Pacific Basin: The smallest, yet contains the largest single hydroelectric project.

Environmental concerns include tailing ponds (storage for mining waste) and Alberta oil sands bitumen extraction.

Historical Evolution and Settlement

The First Peoples arrived from the Old World via the Beringia land bridge approximately 40,000 years ago. Migration theories include the Corridor Route (ice-free) and the Sea Route (island-hopping). Groups included Paleo-Indians (Clovis, Folsom, Plano), Algonquians, Athapaskans, and the Arctic cultures (Denbigh, Dorset, Thule/Inuit ancestors).

Subsequent waves of settlement included the French and British (2nd wave) and other Europeans who occupied the Prairies (3rd wave). Territorial evolution was driven by national unity, boundary disputes, Indigenous rights, and the American concept of Manifest Destiny.

Demographics and the Pluralistic Society

Canada is a pluralistic society that embraces diversity. The population is projected to reach 40 million by 2025, with a density of 3.6 people/km². Immigration accounts for two-thirds of annual growth. The Demographic Transition Theory (early industrial to late post-industrial) often ignores the impact of immigration.

• Ecumene: Inhabited land. The core zone is the most dense.
• Census Metropolitan Area (CMA): An urban core with a population of 100,000+ (core 50,000+).
• Age Dependency Ratio: Projected to be 84/100 by 2056.
• Indigenous Population: 1.6 million in 2016.

Economic Structure and the Staple Thesis

Canada is shifting toward a knowledge-based economy. Globalization has decreased manufacturing jobs but increased the risk of pandemics. The Staple Thesis suggests that Canada’s economy and society are shaped by the export of natural resources (staples) to advanced countries.

Industrial Structure:

• Primary: Resource extraction.
• Secondary: Construction and manufacturing.
• Tertiary: Services (dominates all six regions).
• Quaternary: High-end knowledge.

John A. Macdonald’s National Policy (1879) focused on an industrial core in Central Canada and increased tariffs, which alienated other provinces. The 1965 Auto Pact and 1989 NAFTA further shifted the core/periphery dynamic toward US trade.

Regional Profile: Ontario

Ontario spans the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, Canadian Shield, and Hudson Bay Lowlands. Its history includes the arrival of Loyalists and the War of 1812. Today, it is a manufacturing powerhouse, though the auto industry faces uncertainty due to robotics and competition from Mexico (where wages are lower).

Northern Ontario relies on forestry ($16.6b) and mining ($10b), with future growth tied to the “Ring of Fire” mineral region ($60b). Indigenous issues remain prominent, including the Ipperwash protest and Caledonia land claims.

Regional Profile: Quebec

Quebec is Canada’s largest province by area. Its history is marked by New France, the British conquest, and the Quiet Revolution (1960s), which saw the provincial government replace the Catholic Church in providing social services and fueling nationalism. Hydro-Quebec is a major economic driver, particularly the James Bay Project, which involved agreements like the Paix des Braves with the Cree and Inuit.

Current legislation, such as Bill 9 and Bill 21, focuses on secularism and the protection of the French language. Montreal remains a global tech hub, while Quebec City serves as the administrative and historical center.

Regional Profile: Western Canada

Western Canada (Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba) accounts for the second-largest share of GDP. It is characterized by the Interior Plains and a dry continental climate. Alberta leads with oil and gas (Athabasca oil sands), while Saskatchewan is the world leader in potash and uranium. Manitoba focuses on agriculture and hydroelectricity. The region’s history includes the Red River Settlement, the Metis resistance led by Louis Riel, and the completion of the CPR in 1885.

Regional Profile: British Columbia

British Columbia is defined by the Cordillera and its Pacific orientation. The economy is 80% tertiary but relies on primary sectors like forestry (Coastal Rainforest vs. Interior Boreal Forest) and fishing (salmon). Vancouver is the third-largest city in Canada and a major port for Asian trade. Environmental phenomena like the “Pineapple Express” bring torrential rain, while the region faces earthquake risks due to tectonic plate overlap.

Regional Profile: Atlantic Canada

This region includes the Maritimes (NS, NB, PEI) and Newfoundland & Labrador. It has faced economic challenges, such as the 1992 cod moratorium. While offshore oil and gas and shipbuilding (Irving Halifax) provide some growth, the region relies heavily on Equalization Payments. Physical features include the Appalachian Uplands and the Labrador Current, which creates significant fog.

Regional Profile: The Territorial North

The North is characterized by an increasing Indigenous population and governance, but a decreasing resource base. Climate change is a major concern, with melting permafrost and the albedo feedback loop. The Northwest Passage is becoming more accessible, prompting Canada to exert sovereignty through patrols and the Arctic Council. Economic development is driven by megaprojects (e.g., Mary River iron ore, diamond mining), though these often suffer from “leakage” where profits and jobs flow to the South.

Energy and Environmental Challenges

The oil sands remain a point of conflict regarding Indigenous rights and environmental impact. Bill C-69 has reignited Western alienation. While Canada seeks to reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGE) through a carbon tax (2018), the burden is distributed unevenly across provinces based on their energy industries and hydroelectric potential.