Canada’s Regions, Geography, and Economy
Canadian Regions
Canada is divided into six regions: Atlantic, Quebec, Ontario, Western Canada, British Columbia, and Northern Canada. Each region possesses a unique identity, economic structure, historical development, size, and goals. Boundaries often represent transition zones.
Why six regions? This number is manageable and reflects physical features, statistics, identity, and economic/political structure. Anchor industries are key to regional economies.
Fault Lines
Fault lines represent cracks in national unity:
- Regional (e.g., Western alienation, resource control)
- Quebec (language, Bill 21)
- Indigenous issues
- Immigration
Core-Periphery Model
The Core-Periphery model applies: Ontario and Quebec form the core. British Columbia and Western Canada are areas of fast growth. Atlantic Canada experiences slow growth. Northern Canada is primarily a resource frontier.
Trade: Canada relies heavily on the US (continentalism).
Physical Geography
Physiographic Regions
Canada has seven physiographic regions:
- Canadian Shield (oldest, rugged)
- Cordillera (tectonically unstable)
- Interior Plains (oil/gas)
- Hudson Bay Lowlands (young, muskeg)
- Arctic (permafrost)
- Appalachian (eroded)
- Great Lakes-St. Lawrence (core, population hub)
Landforms: Mountains, Plateaus, Lowlands.
Climate
Climate is determined by four factors:
- Solar energy
- Global circulation
- Marine-continental air masses
- Continental effect
Canada has seven climatic zones: Pacific, Cordillera, Prairies, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence, Atlantic, Subarctic, Arctic.
Precipitation: Convectional, Frontal, Orographic (rain shadow effect).
Permafrost: Alpine, Continuous, Discontinuous, Sporadic.
Drainage Basins
There are four major drainage basins:
- Hudson Bay (largest, hydroelectric potential)
- Atlantic (third largest area)
- Arctic (long coastline, low flow)
- Pacific (small area, big projects)
Environmental Issues
Pollution concerns include:
- Oil Sands (increased greenhouse gas emissions)
- Industrial pollution (Alberta > Ontario > Quebec)
- Mining (tailings ponds)
Population and Culture
Canada is a land of “young and old” histories (Confederation in 1867 vs. Indigenous presence for 40,000+ years).
First Peoples
Migration via the Bering Land Bridge led to Paleo-Indians (Clovis, Folsom, Plano cultures) and the development of seven culture areas.
Arctic cultures: Denbigh → Dorset → Thule (Inuit).
European contact brought disease and conflict, leading to population decline.
Second Peoples
The Second Peoples were the French (from 1608) and the British (Loyalists, UK, Irish). In 1867, four colonies formed Confederation.
Third Peoples
The Third Peoples settled Western Canada. This involved acquiring Hudson’s Bay Company land, building the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR), passing the Dominion Lands Act, and Sifton’s immigration policies (European/Russian).
Fault Lines: The CPR, National Policy, and assimilation policies historically favoured Central Canada.
Indigenous Peoples Today
Key events include the 2008 Apology, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC), and the Idle No More movement (2012).
Indigenous rights are recognized as group rights, including land rights pre-contact.
Quebec Society
Quebec’s history includes the Conquest (1759), the Quebec Act (1774), Confederation (with a bicultural vision), the Quiet Revolution, and referenda (1980, 1995). Quebec was recognized as a nation in 2006.
Population Dynamics
Population increase is mainly driven by immigration, while natural increase is declining.
Density: 3.6 people/km². Physiographic density is comparable to the US.
Population Zones: Core (Great Lakes-St. Lawrence), Secondary (southern Canada), Tertiary (boreal), Empty (North).
Urbanization: Canada has six major CMAs (Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Ottawa). A CMA has an urban core of ≥50,000 and a total population of ≥100,000. Urban areas experience both pull and push factors.
Aging Population: Aging Baby Boomers lead to increasing dependents (projected 84 dependents per 100 workers by 2056).
Indigenous Population: Estimated 500,000 pre-contact, reaching a low point in 1911, rebounding to 1.7 million (2016). Mostly located in Ontario, Western Canada, and British Columbia, with still high natural increase.
Culture and Values
Culture: Canada’s culture is shaped by British, French, American, and Indigenous influences, plus post-1960s immigration, leading to official multiculturalism (1971 policy, 1988 Act).
Four Core Values:
- British parliamentary democracy
- Two official languages
- Indigenous rights
- Constitutionalism
Secularism is a significant value, especially in Quebec.
Language: 98% of Canadians speak English or French.
The TRC aimed to reveal truth and promote healing regarding residential schools.
Economy
Globalization
Globalization has led to loss of manufacturing jobs, increased pandemics, reduced national control, cheap imports, and offshoring.
Staples Thesis
The Staples Thesis (Harold Innis) argues that Canada’s development was driven by resource extraction, restrictions, and tariffs, influencing early manufacturing.
Economic Sectors
Canada’s economy has four sectors:
- Primary (extraction)
- Secondary (manufacturing)
- Tertiary (services)
- Quaternary (knowledge)
Shift: The economy has shifted from Primary → Secondary → Tertiary/Quaternary. In 2019, 80% of employment was in Tertiary/Quaternary sectors.
Economic Policy and Trade
Key policies include the National Policy (1879), Auto Pact (1965), Free Trade Agreement (FTA, 1989), NAFTA (1994), and WTO (1995).
NAFTA Impact: Canadian/US manufacturing initially increased but was later lost to Mexico. Auto production: Canada down 12%, Mexico up 24%.
Economic Models
Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth: Traditional Society → Take-Off → Drive to Maturity → Age of Mass Consumption. Limitations: US-centric.
Commodity Supercycle: Increased resource prices (driven by China); ended 2014. Is India next?
Economic Indicators
GDP (2019): $2.5 trillion, 1.5% growth. COVID-19 impact: hit hard.
Unemployment: 5.7% (2019) → 10.2% (August 2020).
Trade: 75% of trade is with the US (Continentalism).
FTA Benefits: Increased productivity, conflict resolution, North American economic integration.
Manufacturing Decline
Manufacturing Decline: Caused by automation, offshoring, and high wages. The Auto industry was historically the heart (Big 3) but is now shrinking.
Future Economy
The Future Economy is seen as the knowledge economy, but this poses challenges for unskilled labor. Creative clusters are growing in big cities.
The Core/Periphery model still applies (Ontario/Quebec = core).
Equalization Payments
Equalization payments transfer funds from “have” to “have-not” provinces, with the highest payments going to Quebec.
Ontario
Ontario is the economic and population core of Canada. It was a “Have-not” province in the early 2000s but rebounded via technology, auto, and immigration.
Physiography and Climate
Physiography: Canadian Shield/Northern Ontario (mining, poor agriculture), Great Lakes-St. Lawrence/Southern Ontario (fertile land, population hub), Hudson Bay Lowlands.
Climate Zones: Arctic, Subarctic, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence.
Environmental Issues
Environmental Issues: Air quality (vehicles), water quality (Great Lakes reserves).
History
History: Loyalists, War of 1812, British Isles immigration (1850s), 1867: Confederation. The National Policy led to a manufacturing boom.
Indigenous Peoples
Indigenous Peoples: 126 First Nations. Land disputes (Ipperwash, Caledonia), Haldimand Grant.
Ontario Today
Today: Toronto is a global hub. Knowledge-Based Economy and immigration are strengths. Racism and poverty are weak points.
Industry Structure
Industry Structure: 80% in Tertiary sector. Manufacturing is still strong, especially auto, but jobs are declining (offshoring, automation).
Key Sectors
Technology: Cities are R&D centers, attracting graduates and foreign talent.
Banks: Fewer physical branches, digital-first approach.
Auto: 8 assembly plants in Southern Ontario. Magna is a top parts supplier. NAFTA impact: some loss to Mexico.
Regional Differences
Southern Ontario: Golden Horseshoe, Southwestern Ontario, Ottawa Valley are areas of dense population and growth.
Northern Ontario: Resource hinterland, population aging and decline. Mining and forestry are losing strength. The Ring of Fire is a future hope (mining/First Nations consent required). Mining and forestry experience boom/bust cycles.
Quebec
Quebec is linguistically and culturally distinct. Population and economy are tied to immigration. Bill 9 promotes French language values, and Bill 21 promotes secularism. Separatism, historically tied to “old stock,” is weaker now.
Physiography and Climate
Physiography: Great Lakes-St. Lawrence (core, agriculture), Appalachian (tourism), Canadian Shield (hydroelectric power, Cree/Inuit territories), Hudson Bay Lowlands.
Climate: Arctic, Subarctic, Atlantic, Great Lakes-St. Lawrence. Increased spring floods are a concern.
History
History: New France (from 1608), British rule (from 1760), Confederation (1867), Quiet Revolution (1960s).
Quiet Revolution
Quiet Revolution Impact: Shift from church to state control. Hydro-Québec was formed. The Quebec Pension Plan invests in Quebec firms.
Economy
Economy: #3 in Canada. 80% in Tertiary sector. Strong manufacturing and technology sectors, especially in Montreal.
Key Industries: Aerospace (Bombardier, now Airbus), SNC-Lavalin (engineering), Hydro-Québec (anchor industry).
Hydro-Québec: James Bay Project led to the Paix des Braves agreement and the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (JBNQA), providing land, cash, and self-government to Indigenous peoples.
Regional Differences
Core: Montreal is the CMA, bilingual, aerospace/technology hub. Quebec City is the administrative and tourism center.
Northern Quebec: Mining, forestry, hydroelectric reliant. Declining forest industry. Inuit and Cree gained administrative rights via JBNQA.
Western Canada
Western Canada is resource-rich (oil/gas, agriculture) and urbanizing (18% of population). Alberta accounts for 72% of Western GDP, ranking #2 nationally in GDP and #3 in population.
Challenges
Challenges: Continental climate, drought, pipeline protests, reliance on the US market.
Physiography and Climate
Physiography: Interior Plains (manufacturing, oil/gas), Canadian Shield (mining, hydroelectric), Cordillera (tourism, logging), Hudson Bay Lowlands.
Climate: Includes the Dry Belt (Palliser’s Triangle). Manitoba experiences floods.
Soils: Chernozem (black/brown) soils are fertile.
Key Resources and Agriculture
Alberta Oil Sands: Increased GHG emissions, toxic tailings ponds. Bitumen extraction is water-heavy and costly.
Agriculture: Technology is increasing, but farm population is declining. Canola production exceeds wheat. Four Agricultural Zones: Fertile Belt, Dry Belt, Fringe Belt, Peace River Region.
Beef: Production is concentrated in Southern Alberta. Main market: US.
History
History: Home to Cree, Blackfoot, Métis, and the Red River Settlement. Louis Riel (1869, 1885). Canadian Pacific Railway (1885).
CPR: Facilitated Canadian unity, Prairie settlement, and the grain economy. Great Britain/European immigration led to the region becoming an agricultural hub.
Western Canada Today
Today: Knowledge-Based Economy is growing, especially in agriculture, oil/gas, and R&D. Cities are booming: Calgary, Edmonton, Winnipeg, Saskatoon, Regina, Lethbridge.
Technology: Digital oilfield technology, biotechnology, carbon capture.
Mining: Potash, coal, uranium. Presents opportunities and environmental concerns.
Forestry: Struggling sector; US markets are key.
Urban Growth: Increasing, with the Calgary-Edmonton corridor being the fastest growing.
British Columbia
British Columbia accounts for 13% of the Canadian population and experiences fast economic and population growth. Key sectors include forestry, coastal industries, film, and shipping. There is historical tension with Ottawa and a sense of Cascadia regional identity.
Economy and Trade
Exports: Mining, forestry, oil/gas, film (forestry, film, LNG are key). Major Ports: Vancouver, Prince Rupert.
Population Distribution
Population: Mostly concentrated in the Lower Mainland, Vancouver, and Victoria. The region is diverse, pricey, and a creative class hub.
Physiography and Land Use
Physiography: Cordillera is the main region, with Plains in the Peace River gas area. Climate varies from a mild coast to a dry interior.
The Agricultural Land Reserve (ALR, 1973) protects farmland, but market forces push urban sprawl.
Key Industries
Forestry: Covers 60% of the land base. Jobs are declining (automation). Challenges include beetle infestations, wildfires, and volatile prices. Coastal forests are tall and wet; Interior forests are dry and pine. There is a US trade dispute (excluded from NAFTA provisions). Future focus: high-value products, skilled labor, technology.
Mining: Coal is the main commodity, also copper. Experiences boom/bust cycles, environmental damage, and tailings ponds issues.
LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas): Hope for the future (Kitimat terminal, 2025), but prices are volatile.
Site C Hydro: Project on the Peace River, has faced protests.
Salmon Fishery: Most valuable fishery, but faces the tragedy of the commons. Governed by the Pacific Salmon Treaty with the US (1985, renegotiated 2019).
Urban Centers
Urban: Vancouver is the #3 CMA, a creative hub, and a major port. A 15% foreign buyer tax was implemented in 2016.
Atlantic Canada
Atlantic Canada includes the Maritimes and Newfoundland and Labrador.
Physiography and Climate
Physiography: Appalachian Uplands (Maritimes, Newfoundland and Labrador), Canadian Shield (Labrador).
Climate: Atlantic, Subarctic, Arctic zones. Characterized by fog and nor’easters.
Environmental Issues
Environmental Issues: Sydney Tar Ponds ($400 million cleanup), Muskrat Falls (methylmercury risk, fish contamination).
Fisheries
Cod Fishery Collapse: A tragedy of the commons (1992 ban, stocks remain low). Shellfish now account for 90% of fishery value.
History
History: 1497: John Cabot. French presence in Acadia, allied with Mi’kmaq. Fishing was the economic anchor (Nova Scotia exports to China).
Mi’kmaq Rights: Marshall Decision (1999) affirmed fishing rights, leading to lobster tensions in 2020.
Key Industries
Offshore Oil (Newfoundland and Labrador): Four projects, light crude oil. Experiences boom/bust cycles; labor jobs primarily during construction.
Mining: Canadian Shield: Iron/Nickel (Voisey’s Bay), with Impact and Benefit Agreements (IBAs) with Innu/Inuit. New Brunswick potash mining ended in 2019.
Forestry: Weak sector, declining demand, mostly in New Brunswick.
Agriculture: Less than 5% of the land base is agricultural (PEI, Saint John River Valley, Annapolis Valley), producing potatoes and dairy.
Population
Population: Slow increase, more concentrated in the Maritimes. Lowest urbanization rate. Experiences outmigration.
Northern Canada
Northern Canada includes Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut.
Climate and Geography
Climate Zones: Arctic (cold, dry, tundra), Subarctic (stretching south). Sensitive to warming (albedo effect).
Geography/Resources: Mining/oil & gas wealth (Canadian Shield, Cordillera). Debate over a “Leave-in-Ground” approach for oil/gas.
History
History: Inuit/Dene pre-contact. Vikings (c. 1000 AD), Martin Frobisher (1576), John Franklin (1845).
Fur trade/whaling established a barter economy with Hudson’s Bay Company posts. Alcoholism and disease increased.
Residential Schools caused significant cultural loss.
Post-WWII: Move to settlements for social service access, leading to overcrowding and poverty.
Comprehensive Land Claims: E.g., Inuvialuit Final Agreement (IFA, 1984). Led to dual governance structures (economic vs. traditional) and now include self-government.
Country Food: Spiritual and practical importance. Store-bought food is costly.
Transportation and Economy
Transport: Few roads, reliance on ice roads. Fly-in/fly-out jobs represent cultural commuting, but money is often spent in the South.
Megaprojects: Often multinational corporation-led, unsustainable, and risky. Involve large investment and long build times, but profits can leak South.
Key Projects: Mary River (Iron), Gahcho Kué (Diamonds), Mackenzie Gas Project (cancelled). NWT Diamonds are the #1 sector.
Issues
Issues: Staples trap, lack of economic diversity. IBAs do not always guarantee long-term gain.
The North is both a resource frontier and an Indigenous homeland.