Byzantine Mosaics: Iconography, Imperial Power, and the Golden Ages
Characteristics of Byzantine Iconography
The figures show a certain rigidity and monotony, but are very expressive in their symbolism, displaying an obvious disregard for the laws of nature and space. They are elongated and suggest a certain dehumanization.
The Iconographic Program (Hermeneia)
The new iconographic types symbolically suit a preset program (the Hermeneia), assigned to different parts of the temple:
- The Pantocrator (Christ in Majesty blessing) in the dome.
- The Tetramorph (four evangelists) in the pendentives.
- The Virgin in the apse.
- The Saints and evangelical scenes on the walls of the naves.
Key Marian and Christological Models
The most often repeated models are the figures of Christ with a beard, starting middle age (the Syriac model), and the Virgin, who takes various forms:
- ***Kyriotissa*** (or Throne of the Lord): holding the Child on her lap, like a throne.
- ***Hodighitria***: standing with the Child on her left arm while pointing to Jesus with her right hand as the way of salvation (a model developed further in the Gothic period).
- ***Theotokos*** (Mother of God): offering the Child a fruit or a flower.
- ***Platytera*** or ***Blachernitissa***: featuring a halo in the womb in which the Child appears, indicating the motherhood of the Virgin.
Other Repetitive Themes
Other repetitive themes include the Deesis (the group of Christ with the Virgin and St. John the Baptist as intercessors) and those dedicated to the twelve liturgical feasts of the year, among which are the Anastasis (or Descent of Christ into Limbo), the Dormition of the Virgin, and the Vision of Mamre (the appearance of three angels to Abraham, symbolizing the Trinity).
The Role of Mosaics and Imperial Power
A taste for wealth and the ornamental richness of Byzantine art, which was eminently courtly, demanded the lining of temple walls with mosaic. This served not only to conceal the poverty of the materials used but also as a means of expressing religiosity and the semi-divine nature of imperial power.
The First Golden Age: Ravenna Masterpieces
The most complete examples from the First Golden Age are found in Ravenna, linking back to early Christian mosaics of the 5th century. In the churches of Sant’Apollinare Nuovo and Sant’Apollinare in Classe, the walls are covered with mosaics:
- In Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, a processional cortege, headed by the Magi, leads to the Theotokos (Mother of God).
- In Sant’Apollinare in Classe, the apse features a heavenly vision in which St. Apollinaris (of Ravenna) leads a flock.
The San Vitale Imperial Portraits (c. 547)
The masterpiece of mosaic art (ars musivarium) is undoubtedly the entire mosaic complex of San Vitale, composed around the year 547. These mosaics represent various biblical themes, and on the sides of the apse, they feature groups of Justinian I and his wife Theodora with their respective entourages.
These two panels show the Emperor Justinian with his entourage in one, and the Empress Theodora with her court in the other. They represent the traditional custom among emperors of making offerings to the most important church before the faithful, expressing their Christian virtue and their power over the empire.
Justinian wears a gold paten and purple robes, the symbolic color of power. He is accompanied on one side by the Bishop of Ravenna and on the other by generals of his armies. Thus, Justinian justifies the power of the state and ensures the church recognizes him as the highest authority. Furthermore, the emperor and his wife appear as if sanctified by a halo (aureola).
Theodora wears a golden chalice encrusted with gems, and her entourage is made up mostly of women, also dressed in purple, and her crown features large inlaid ornaments.
The Second and Third Golden Ages
After the Iconoclastic Struggle in the mid-ninth century, Byzantine aesthetics and iconography were truly established. A new era emerged—the Second Golden Age—which marked the peak of the visual arts, radiating its influences to Islamic art (then in formation) and the nascent European Romanesque art.
During the Third Golden Age, mosaic use continued until the thirteenth century. At this time, the iconography was enriched with “Marian” series, saints, and evangelists. Due to Italian influences, there was greater compositional freedom, evident in the stylized mannerism.
Since the mosaics of Constantinople were destroyed, the only references available are those of San Marco in Venice. These mosaics feature an abundant use of gold, which had a marked influence on Gothic works by Cimabue, Duccio, and other Italian painters.