Building the Spanish Liberal State: Reforms, Conflicts, and Crises (1833-1868)
The Emergence of a Liberal State (1833-1843)
During the Carlist War, the Elizabethan side attracted liberals, leading to the creation of a Liberal State. The first government (1833-1836), under the regency of Maria Cristina Bermudez, initially appointed absolutists. However, advisors urged the regent to empower liberals for broader support. This resulted in the appointment of Martínez de la Rosa and the enactment of the Royal Statute (1834), introducing shared sovereignty and establishing Crown Courts and prosecutors.
These reforms were insufficient for some liberals, who demanded a progressive government based on popular uprisings and urban riots. Mendizábal’s disentailment of church lands followed, but his dismissal led to the appointment of Calatrava and the brief enactment of the Cádiz Constitution. However, a more liberal constitution was desired.
The Constitution of 1837, while similar to the progressive principles of Cádiz, was based on national sovereignty, a declaration of rights, press freedom, the division of powers, and a non-denominational state. It also included moderate elements, such as the creation of a Congress and Senate, granting powers to the Crown, and funding the Catholic religion. The Printing Act removed censorship, and an electoral law enfranchised men over 25 who met certain tax requirements.
The political system alternated between moderates and progressives, with military interventions by Narváez, O’Donnell, and Espartero. The moderates, ruling from 1837-1840, reversed some progressive legislation, restricting the Electoral Law, returning land to the Clergy, and enacting a controversial Law on Municipalities. This sparked opposition from progressive and revolutionary movements, leading to Maria Cristina’s resignation and Espartero’s appointment as regent.
Espartero’s regency (1840-1843) was marked by authoritarianism, leading to a loss of popularity and internal divisions among progressives. Conspiracies and instability resulted in Espartero’s removal and the declaration of Isabella II’s majority at age 13. The moderates returned to power until 1854, interrupted by the progressive uprising known as La Vicalvarada.
The Moderate Decade (1844-1854)
The 1844 elections brought Narváez and the moderates back to power, aiming to normalize liberal institutions based on order, authority, and repression (leading to the exile of some progressives). This regime was supported by the landed gentry, the new bourgeoisie, the Army, and the Crown. Election results were often manipulated to ensure moderate victories.
The Constitution of 1845, based on conservative principles, was approved. It established shared sovereignty between the King and Parliament, extended the executive’s power over the legislative, and declared Christianity the official state religion. It resembled the 1837 Constitution but granted significant power to the King, allowing him to appoint ministers, dissolve the Cortes, exercise veto power, and appoint senators. A decree in 1845 regulated and controlled the press and established a census suffrage based on wealth, education, and social standing, favoring rural (conservative) voters over urban ones.
Moderates sought to improve relations with the Church, which had sided with the Carlists due to earlier progressive secularization and the abolition of the tithe. A concordat was signed with the Holy See, returning lands to the Church. The State agreed to financially support the Spanish Church, restoring religious orders, education, and Catholicism as the official religion, securing Church support for Isabella II’s throne.
The Liberal State was based on centralism and administrative uniformity. Tax reforms increased state revenue, and a Criminal Code and Civil Code were approved. Public administration was reorganized, and the Local Administration Act allowed the Crown to appoint mayors. A public education system was established under the Moyano Act, the metric system was adopted, and the Civil Guard was created.
A crisis emerged as the moderate government failed to achieve political stability, resorting to electoral manipulation and legislative maneuvering. Political life devolved into cliques seeking royal favor. Bravo Murillo’s authoritarianism transformed the state into a technocratic dictatorship, suspending the courts and restricting the electorate, resembling the earlier Royal Statute. Murillo’s eventual removal and the dissolution of his party paved the way for the revolution of 1854 and the return of the progressives after the Pronunciamiento de Vicálvaro.
The Progressive Biennium and Beyond (1854-1868)
The Progressive Biennium (1854-1856) saw the appointment of General O’Donnell and the creation of the Liberal Union, a centrist political party. The Manifesto of Manzanares demanded compliance with the 1845 Constitution, electoral reform, tax reduction, and the restoration of the National Militia.
Espartero was appointed Prime Minister with a progressive majority, attempting to restore progressive principles such as the Municipal Law and the National Militia. A new Constitution was enacted, introducing features like religious freedom and an elected Senate. An ambitious economic reform plan aimed to industrialize Spain. Key measures included the Desamortización of Madoz, affecting Church property, local councils, and state institutions to generate revenue. This money was invested in railways (General Railways Act), reforestation, telegraphs, roads, corporations, banking, and mining.
Despite these efforts, the crisis persisted. Workers’ strikes demanded lower taxes, better wages, shorter working hours, and the abolition of conscription. Peasant uprisings also occurred. A Labor Law was enacted, but social unrest grew as workers entered political life. Disputes arose between the Liberal Union and the more progressive Democratic Party. Espartero resigned, and O’Donnell was appointed, suppressing protests and attempting to dismantle the political system that had brought him to power. This led to the decomposition of the Elizabethan system between 1856 and 1868.
- The Unionist Governments (1856-1863): Led by O’Donnell, uniting progressives and moderates, reducing the Crown’s power, and accepting the Desamortización. Political stability was achieved, and attempts were made to revitalize the parliamentary system, although a minority opposition remained. International prestige was pursued through military campaigns in Indochina, Mexico, and Morocco. However, unstable governments and O’Donnell’s resignation led to the return of a moderate government.
- The Moderate Governments (1863-1868): Narváez returned, initiating a period of moderantismo with limited support. Authoritarianism increased, accusing progressives of hindering the Crown and promoting dictatorial rule. Progressives joined forces with democrats and other groups. In 1866, the uprising at the San Gil barracks, supported by unionists and progressives, led to O’Donnell’s exile. The growing subsistence crisis and rising prices fueled demands for political change.