Building the Liberal State in Spain: From Isabel II to the First Republic
ITEM 12: CONSTRUCTING AND STRENGTHENING THE LIBERAL STATE
Reign of Queen Isabel II
The Rise of Liberalism and the Carlist Opposition
During the reign of Queen Isabel II, Spain underwent a significant transformation, constructing a liberal parliamentary state and transitioning from the ancien régime to a modern capitalist system. The new ruling class comprised the business bourgeoisie and nobility. However, this shift faced strong opposition from Carlism, an ideological and class-based movement advocating for male inheritance rights and the alliance of altar and throne. Carlists, mainly composed of nobility, ultraconservative officials, lower clergy, and some peasants and craftsmen, were prominent in rural areas like the Basque Country, Catalonia, and Aragon Maestrazgo, partly due to their defense of regional privileges.
The Carlist Wars
The First Carlist War (1833-1839) saw the Carlist faction, supporting Charles V, clash with the supporters of Isabel II, including moderates, liberals, army generals, and the urban middle classes. The war, initially favorable to the Carlists, eventually turned in favor of the Isabelines, culminating in the Abrazo de Vergara, which recognized the ranks and positions of the defeated Carlists. Navarre lost its kingdom status but was promised autonomy.
The Second (1846-1849) and Third (1872-1876) Carlist Wars erupted due to continued Carlist claims to the throne. Despite military strength, the Carlists failed in the second war. The third war, under Charles VII, gained traction in the Basque Country and Navarre, coinciding with the First Republic. However, the restoration of the monarchy under Alfonso XII in 1874 marked the end of the Carlist conflicts.
Isabel II’s Reign and the Regencies
Maria Cristina’s Regency (1833-1840)
Maria Cristina, ruling as regent during Isabel’s minority, initially appointed the moderate liberal Martinez de la Rosa. She secured foreign aid (Quadruple Alliance) and implemented mild reforms. However, her conservative leanings were evident in the Royal Charter, which established a bicameral parliament with limited suffrage and significant royal power. The liberal movement split into moderates and progressives. Insurrections forced Maria Cristina to hand power to the progressives, leading to the premiership of Juan Alvarez Mendizabal, who began dismantling the old regime. The 1837 Constitution was drafted, but Maria Cristina’s preference for moderate governments led to her resignation in 1840, replaced by General Espartero.
Espartero’s Regency (1840-1843)
Espartero, supported by progressives, ruled authoritatively. His unpopularity grew, culminating in an 1842 insurrection in Barcelona over fears of free trade with England. Moderates and some progressives ousted Espartero, leading to General Narvaez’s conservative government, which closed newspapers, political clubs, and purged progressives.
Isabel II’s Personal Rule (1843-1868)
The Decade of Cash
In 1843, Isabel II began her personal rule, a period marked by conservatism and governed by the 1845 Constitution. Political participation was restricted to an oligarchy of aristocrats, wealthy bourgeois, and officials. Elections were manipulated, and Isabel actively supported the Conservatives, preventing progressives from gaining power. This led to political deterioration and the eventual fall of the monarchy in 1868. The military’s involvement in government was constant, as conservatives saw them as guarantors of security.
Other features of this period included the exclusion of most of the population from political life, deteriorating living conditions, and harsh repression of protests, which facilitated the spread of socialist ideas. The main political parties were the bourgeois Moderates, Progressives, Liberal Union, and Democratic Party.
The Democratic Sexenio (1868-1874): Attempts at Democratization
The Revolution of 1868
The Gloriosa revolution, a military coup led by generals, resulted in Isabel II’s exile. The revolution, supported by various interests including financial and industrial sectors, led to the formation of local and provincial boards and the mobilization of the Volunteers of Liberty. However, the new government under Serrano, Prim, and Sagasta quickly dissolved the boards and volunteer battalions, calling for elections to the Constituent Cortes.
The Constitution of 1869
Elections were held with universal male suffrage and freedom of the press. The Cortes debated between monarchy and republic, ultimately opting for a parliamentary monarchy. The 1869 Constitution, Spain’s first democratic constitution, established a strict separation of powers, a detailed bill of rights, freedom of worship, and universal male suffrage.
Prim’s Government and the Search for a King (1869-1870)
Serrano became regent, and Prim formed a government of progressives and some democrats. They adopted significant legislation, including economic reforms and the introduction of the peseta. However, they faced a double crisis: the war in Cuba and social unrest in Spain, including peasant uprisings and republican revolts. The search for a king led to the election of Amadeo of Savoy.
The Reign of Amadeo I (1871-1872)
Amadeo’s reign was plagued by instability, exacerbated by the assassination of General Prim shortly before his arrival. Amadeo was associated with democracy and social disorder, and support grew for Alfonso, son of Isabel II. The reign saw unstable governments, the worsening Cuban conflict, and the outbreak of the Third Carlist War. Amadeo abdicated in 1873, leading to the proclamation of the First Republic.
The First Republic and the Constitution of 1873
The First Republic was established with Estanislao Figueras as chief executive. It lacked broad political support, facing opposition from conservatives and internal divisions between federalists and unionists. Peasant uprisings and federalist insurrections occurred, along with coup attempts. Margall Pi became president after Figueras’s resignation.
The Constitution of 1873 envisioned a confederal republic with 17 states and overseas territories, but it never came into effect. The Cantonal Revolution, with various regions declaring independence, and the ongoing Carlist War further destabilized the situation. Nicolas Salmerón initiated a rightward shift, granting powers to the army and restoring the death penalty before resigning. Emilio Castelar continued the authoritarian turn, obtaining extraordinary powers and suppressing the revolution. However, his fall led to a coup by General Pavia, who established a military government under General Serrano, ending the First Republic.