British Society Transformed: Women, Reformation, and Enlightenment
Women’s Changing Role in Post-War Britain (1945-1970s)
After the Second World War, Britain underwent a significant social and cultural transformation. The role of women changed dramatically, influenced by several factors:
- The post-war ‘baby boom’
- Rising divorce rates and the beginning of new sexual openness
- Cinema sex symbols defining a ‘third war’ for women
During the 1960s, the women’s movement successfully campaigned for new rights. In 1967, the Family Planning Act made oral contraceptives available through the National Health Service. In 1969, the Divorce Reform Act simplified the procedure.
Moreover, fashion also changed, moving towards ready-to-wear clothes in radical new styles. Mary Quant’s miniskirt promoted a ‘new look’ for women.
During the 1970s, the women’s movement made further progress: the 1975 Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act improved women’s employment conditions. Many universities created departments for women’s studies, and women’s writings became an established literary genre.
However, decline and division were near as the women’s feminist movement split between moderate and radical branches, illustrated by disagreement over the appearance of Cosmopolitan magazine in 1972. Otherwise, British institutions remained male-dominated.
Henry VIII’s Break with Rome: Causes and Events
Early Reign and Marital Crisis
Henry VIII became king at the age of 18 in 1509. He married Catherine of Aragon in a diplomatic alliance with the Spanish Monarchy.
In 1515, Thomas Wolsey was appointed Chancellor by the papal legate. He became the virtual ruler of England on behalf of the King, becoming one of the most important non-royal figures in England.
France was in conflict with Rome, and Henry VIII offered military assistance. In thanks, Pope Leo X granted Henry the title of ‘Fidei Defensor‘. However, this alliance was short-lived, as his reign was marked by the eventual break with the Catholic Church and Rome.
Henry VIII began to assert his authority in both political and personal spheres. While he desired ultimate power over the country and the Church, his primary ambition was to secure a male heir. Catherine failed to produce a male heir, and because of this, Henry wished to marry Anne Boleyn, hoping she would provide him with one.
Wolsey’s Fall and Cromwell’s Rise
Wolsey requested an annulment of Henry’s marriage, but the Pope refused due to Rome’s strong relationship with Spain and Emperor Charles V (Catherine’s uncle).
In 1529, Wolsey fell from power. Henry needed a new Chancellor, and he appointed Thomas Cromwell, along with the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer. Both were Protestants, influenced by Anne Boleyn.
Legislative Revolution and Reformation
They proposed radical solutions to Henry’s problem: the Act of Appeals, the Act of Supremacy, and the Treason Act, all approved by Parliament. The idea of Royal Supremacy was influenced by Anne Boleyn, who finally married Henry.
During 1536-1539, the Dissolution of the Monasteries (over 500) committed the landed and mercantile classes to the Reformation movement. Cromwell and Cranmer led a Protestant reform agenda, but Henry remained an orthodox Catholic on main doctrinal issues. Bible reading was the only concession. The Bible ceased to be a Latin book accessible only to a small group of people and became an English book for everyone.
Intellectual and Religious Revolutions in the Stuart Age
Scientific Advancements and Key Figures
The Stuart period was a time of political upheaval and violence, arising from tension between the absolutist Stuart monarchy and Parliament.
The ideas and beliefs of that period led to new scientific and religious thinking. Careful study of the natural world led to new discoveries, paving the way for future advances in agriculture, industry, and other fields:
- Francis Bacon (scientific method)
- William Harvey (medicine)
- Isaac Newton (mechanical laws)
New Religious Thought and Puritan Writers
New religious ideas were expressed by Puritan writers:
- John Bunyan (The Pilgrim’s Progress)
- John Milton (Paradise Lost)