British Political Transformation: Stuarts, Hanoverians, Empire
Origins of Modern British Politics
Early Political Parties
The modern concept of political parties formed from the ashes of the Cavaliers and Roundheads. The Cavaliers evolved into the Tory Party, royalists intent on preserving the king’s authority, while the Roundheads transformed into the Whig Party, men of property dedicated to expanding trade abroad.
The Glorious Revolution and Succession
Reign of James II (1633-1701)
James II, Stuart King of England, Scotland, and Ireland, was overthrown in 1688 during the ‘Glorious Revolution’ by William III. James converted to Catholicism and opposed several anti-Catholic measures. This did not impede his succession to the throne upon Charles II’s death in 1685. His attempts to grant equality to Roman Catholics and Protestants led to conflict with Parliament. In 1689, James’s army in Ireland, with French support, was defeated by William at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690.
The Glorious Revolution (1688)
The Revolution of 1688, also known as the Glorious Revolution, was the overthrow of King James II of England by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder, William III, Prince of Orange.
William III and Mary II
Mary II and William III ruled Britain following the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Mary II was a devoted Protestant, and many Parliamentarians and nobles favored her as monarch. Their accession marked an important transition towards the parliamentary rule we know today. William’s ousting of his predecessor, the Catholic James II, ensured the primacy of the Protestant faith in Britain. The victory at the Battle of the Boyne is celebrated annually in Northern Ireland on July 12th.
Key Legislation: Rights and Succession
The Bill of Rights (1689)
The Bill of Rights was an Act of Parliament that addresses constitutional matters and certain basic civil rights. It established principles such as:
- Frequent parliaments
- Free elections
- Freedom of speech within Parliament
It received Royal Assent in 1689 and is a restatement in statutory form of the Declaration of Right, which was presented by the Convention Parliament to William III and Mary II.
The Act of Settlement (1701)
The Act of Settlement was an Act of Parliament passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English and Irish crowns on Protestants only. The next Protestant in line to the throne was Sophia of Hanover, a granddaughter of James I. Under this act, anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, was disqualified from inheriting the throne.
The Hanoverian Era and Victorian Age
The House of Hanover Ascendancy
In the 18th and 19th centuries, a new ruling house, the House of Hanover, appeared. Monarchs from this line included:
- George I
- George II
- George III
- George IV
- William IV
- Victoria
This royal German dynasty, which also ruled the Kingdom of Hanover, provided monarchs for Great Britain and Ireland from 1714 until the death of Queen Victoria in 1901. Jacobite support for the restoration of the Stuarts to the throne increased, particularly during the reign of George II. During the long reign of Queen Victoria (1837-1901), Britain became one of the most powerful countries in the world.
Victorian Britain: Power and Prosperity (1837-1901)
The period of Queen Victoria’s reign (1837 until her death on 22 January 1901) is known as Victorian Britain. It was characterized by:
- Relative peace among the great powers (as established by the Congress of Vienna)
- Increased economic activity
- National self-confidence for Great Britain
Reform, Empire, and Transformation
Political Reforms: The 1832 Reform Act
A pivotal change occurred during King William IV’s reign with the Whigs introducing the Reform Act of 1832. The Reform Act (or Reform Bill) was one of several British parliamentary bills that expanded the electorate for the House of Commons and rationalized its representation. The first Reform Act primarily served to transfer voting privileges from ‘rotten boroughs’ to the growing industrial towns.
The British Empire: Expansion and Decline
Britain had been expanding its territory overseas since the 16th century, establishing a vast global empire. This expansion continued through various periods, including the acquisition of former German colonies after World War I. However, the 20th century brought significant challenges. After the Fall of France during World War II, Britain and its Empire stood resilient against Axis aggression. Although Britain and its allies emerged victorious from the Second World War, the economic and political effects of the conflict were profound. Britain was left largely bankrupt, accelerating the decline of the Empire and leading to an era where its days were numbered, paving the way for decolonization.