Bismarck’s Diplomacy, Armed Peace, and the Rise of Colonial Imperialism
The Bismarckian System and the Armed Peace (1871–1914)
Bismarck’s Foreign Policy and the Alliance System
Following German unification, Bismarck’s policy focused on creating a series of international alliances, known as the Bismarckian System. This system aimed to isolate France, which posed a potential threat to the stability of the newly created German state, thereby affirming Germany’s hegemony in the world.
The three Bismarckian systems were built, repeatedly, through the union of three countries: Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary, who were later joined by Italy. These systems fell apart several times as a result of rivalry between Russia and Austria for dominance in the Balkan area.
The Collapse of the System and New Alliances
The political framework created by Bismarck collapsed with the ascension of the German Emperor Wilhelm II, who dispensed with Bismarck’s services. Bismarck was forced to resign in 1890.
Germany’s hegemonic attitude led to a series of anti-German alliances, such as the Triple Entente (Britain, France, and Russia). The German emperor reacted to these events, leading to conflicts in North Africa and the Balkans.
The Era of Armed Peace (1871–1914)
The period between 1871 and 1914 is known as the Armed Peace (or Pax Armata). Although there were almost no wars in Europe, different countries significantly developed their military capabilities.
Colonial Imperialism
Causes of Colonial Expansion
Economic and Industrial Drivers
The development of the second phase of the Industrial Revolution (characterized by big capital) drove most industrialized countries to seek new areas for the supply of raw materials and energy sources, and to invest surplus capital outside of industrial production. This situation led, over the last decades of the nineteenth and early twentieth century, to the great European powers (Britain and France), the United States, and later Japan conquering most of Africa and much of Asia and Oceania in order to economically exploit these areas, thereby creating colonies.
Other Factors Leading to Expansion
Other factors that led to colonial expansion were:
- Demographic and Social: The enormous growth of the European population (which rose from 300 million in 1870 to more than 450 million in 1914) and the widespread use of machinery (causing high levels of unemployment) stimulated emigration to the colonies, which partially alleviated this problem.
- Political: Strained international relations prompted European governments to control strategic points and various territories to increase their prestige and power.
- Scientific: The desire to explore new territories gave rise to geographical societies that aroused interest in unknown locations.
- Cultural: The belief in the superiority of the white race led to the conviction that it was a duty to convey the progress of civilization, European cultures, and the Christian religion to other countries.
Colonial expansion was also helped by progress in the means of transport and the construction of new roads, like the Suez Canal, which reinvigorated commercial traffic between Europe and Asia through the Mediterranean.
The Colonial Empires
Among the colonizing countries, the United Kingdom and France were the most prominent:
- United Kingdom: In the early twentieth century, the UK was not only the world’s leading maritime power, but the British Empire was the largest in the world.
- France: France established the second largest colonial empire. While not reaching the extent of the British Empire, it had major holdings in Asia and Africa.
Other nations also established colonies:
- Italy colonized Libya.
- The Netherlands colonized part of Indonesia.
- Germany colonized South-West Africa and the Gulf of Guinea.
- Portugal colonized Angola and Mozambique.
- Belgium colonized part of the Congo.
- Spain colonized the northern Sahara.