Biology & Chemistry Basics: Cells, Systems, and Chemical Reactions

Posted on May 15, 2024 in Biology

Biology

Plant & Animal Cells

Prokaryotes

No nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotes

Have a nucleus & other organelles.

Plant cells have a cell wall & chloroplasts while animal cells don’t.

Organelles

Cytoplasm

Suspends organelles in the cell.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Transports materials throughout the cell.

Nucleus

Stores genetic data & performs mitosis.

Mitochondria

Converts glucose with oxygen to make energy for the cell.

Cell Membrane

Supports the cell & allows diffusion.

Chloroplast

Absorbs light & converts it to energy.

Golgi Bodies

Collects & removes materials from the cell.

Vacuoles

Isolating & removing waste in the cell & maintaining pressure.

Chromatid

Two identical strands of DNA that make up the chromosome.

Centromere

Structure that holds the chromatids together as chromosomes.

Cancer

Caused by mutations in cells.

Carcinogens

Factors that increase the risk of cancer.

Benign

A tumor that is not harmful.

Malignant

Tumor that is harmful.

Ways of Detecting

Pap, PSA, breast self-exam

Treatment

Chemo, radio, surgery

Stem Cells

Cells that are able to divide into any type of cell by turning on some of the DNA to allow some functions.

Umbilical cord: excellent source for stem cells that can only make blood (specialized stem cells).

Cells > Tissues > Organs > Organ Systems

Organ

Obtain oxygen, get nutrients, make waste, adapt, repair, grow, change.

Tissues

Epithelial

Skin, lining of the digestive system.

• Thinly packed cells.

Connective

Bone, tendons, blood.

• Various cells & fibers held together by a single organ.

Muscle

Muscles, heart, digestive muscles.

• Expand & contract on demand to create movement.

Nervous

Brain, nervous system.

• Long thin cells that convey electric currents to control the body.

Digestive System

Digestive Tract

Mouth > Esophagus > Small Intestines > Large Intestines > Rectum > Anus

• Covered in epithelial tissues for smoothness.

Goblet Cells

Produce mucus to protect from acids.

Mouth

Breaks down food.

Esophagus

Travels down through smooth muscles: peristalsis.

Stomach

Churns food with enzymes to digest food.

Small Intestine

Smooth muscles bring nutrients into blood vessels.

Large Intestine

Food left to dry.

Liver

Produces enzymes for digestion.

• Gall bladder: produces bile to kill fat.

Pancreas

Produces insulin to control blood sugars.

Circulatory System

Blood, heart, blood vessels.

• Move nutrients, move oxygen, carry waste, temperature, WBC movement.

Blood

RBC

Erythrocytes: 50% of blood.

• Contains hemoglobin that transports oxygen throughout the body. From marrow.

WBC

Less than 1%, fights infections by search & destroy methods.

• Destroys or asks antibodies to attack them.

Platelets

Keeps blood from clotting. Ruptures to heal.

Plasma

50% of blood, protein-rich fluid to carry cells.

Heart

Responsible for pumping blood around the body.

Cardiac Muscle

Only in the heart that moves at the same time.

Nerve Tissue

Controls beating frequency.

Connective Tissue

Protect heart from friction, collision. Made of epithelial tissue.

Blood Vessels

Arteries

Carries blood under high pressure with thick walls.

Veins

Carries blood under low pressure in thin walls. Valves are used to suspend blood.

Capillaries

Cell size width, carries oxygen & diffusion at this level.

Diseases

Coronary artery disease, heart attack.

Respiratory System

Gas Exchange

Gas is transferred through diffusion into blood through capillaries.

Diseases

Tuberculosis: bacteria infection.

• Cancer: tumor in lung blocking air flow.

Musculoskeletal System

Supports body & movement, protection.

Bone

Hard dense matrix of calcium, phosphorus, & collagen protein. Marrow inside to make blood.

Ligament

Bonds bone to bone. Soft elastic collagen.

Cartilage

Provides lubrication between disks.

Muscle

Cells contract in long fibers to provide movement.

• Skeletal muscle: voluntary movement.
• Smooth muscle: involuntary movement.

Tendons

Bone to muscle, less elastic.

Diseases

Osteoporosis: loss of calcium in bone, making it fragile.

• Accidents.

Nervous System

Nerve Cells

Dedicated network to allow messages to pass through & enable interactions.

Central Nervous System

Nerves, brain, spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves that carry the signal throughout the body.

Neurons

Cells which conduct messages using electric currents.

Disease

Multiple sclerosis: myelin sheath falling off.

• Physical trauma.

Plants

• Green outside.
• Exchanges gases.
• Require internal nutrient transportation.

Hierarchy

Root & shoot system.

Dermal Tissue

Outer surfaces.

Vascular Tissue

Transportation.

Ground Tissue

All others.

Shoot System

Conducts photosynthesis & produces flowers.

Root System

Segment that primarily grows underground.

Light energy + CO2 + water -> glucose + oxygen through chlorophyll.

Energy is stored as starch, less soluble in water. It is converted back to glucose for consumption.

Leaves

Support, attraction, reproduction.

Meristematic Cells

Undifferentiated cells for plants.

Epidermal Tissue

Flat tissues on the outer surface of plants.

Periderm Tissues

Tissues on the surface of barks.

Apical Meristems

Stem cells at the tops of the plant to allow it to grow taller.

Lateral Meristems

Stem cells at the side of the bark areas to make the plant grow wider.

Water > root hairs > xylem roots > stem > petiole > xylem of leaf > spongy mesophyll or palisade > chloroplast.

Chemistry

Properties of Metals

• Metallic.
• Conductive.
• Malleable.
• Solid.

Properties of Non-Metals

• Solid, gas, or liquid.
• Brittle.
• Dull.
• Insulators.

Alkali Metals

Most reactive.

Alkali Earth Metals

2nd most reactive.

Halogens

Most reactive non-metal.

Noble Gases

Least reactive.

All based on the number of valence electrons.

Ions

Charged particle that loses or gains electrons to have a full outer orbital.

Ionic Compounds

Having two elements come in to make a full outer orbital for all by transferring electrons. Conduct electricity when dissolved in water.

Ionic Bond

Attraction of two elements with positive & negative charges.

Naming

Metal followed by non-metal with “ide” ending.

Transitional Metals

Have two or more charges.

Transitional metals will have to add (XX) to indicate charge.

Criss-cross method for formulas.

Polyatomic Compounds

Ion made up of one or more elements.

Naming

• Write the name of the cation, then “ide” after the anion.
• Criss-cross method to determine charges.

Molecular/Covalent Compounds

Compounds through sharing electrons. Some always come in a pair.

• HOBrFINCl.

Naming

Uses a set of common molecular names.

2nd term/1st that is more than 1 will use prefix system.

No charges need to be indicated.

Reactants & Products

Single Displacement

One element replaces another, leaving one alone.

A + BC -> AC + B

Decomposition

Single compound breaks down into another element/compounds.

AB -> A + B

Synthesis

Opposite of decomposition.

A + B -> AB

Double Displacement

Both elements are replaced by another.

AB + CD -> AD + CB

Combustion

Rapid reaction with oxygen to create oxides.

Fuel + oxygen -> carbon dioxide & water.

Incomplete Combustion

Fuel + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water + carbon + carbon monoxide.

Hydrocarbons

Fossil fuel like gas/coal.

Oxidation

Reaction slow between oxygen to make an oxide.

Law of Conservation of Mass

The mass of the reactants must equal to the mass of the product. We will use coefficients & multipliers to balance the equations.

Corrosion

Bad: car rusting, good: rusting aluminum.

Acids

• Neutralizes bases.
• Conducts electricity.
• Reacts with metals to create H².
• Reacts with carbonates to create CO².
• Reacts with water to create hydrogen.
• All acids have “hydro” in front: hydrofluoric.
• Conducts electricity.
• Sour.

Oxyacids

Derive from polyatomic acids containing oxygen & hydrogen. Add “-ic” on it.

Turns blue litmus paper pink, leaves pink litmus paper pink.

Bases

• Neutralizes acids.
• When dissolved in water, gives off OH ion.
• Turns red litmus paper blue & keeps blue litmus paper blue.
• Conducts electricity.

pH

Level of how acidic or basic a solution is based on how much “power of hydrogen”.

Acids range from 0-7 while bases go from 7-14.

Neutralization Reactions

Base + acid will equal to a salt & water.

Physics

Light travels in waves & particles.

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Laws of Reflection

• The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
• The incident ray, reflected ray, & the normal are all on the same plane.

Diffused Reflection

When rays are reflected over the place & no solid image is seen.

Specular Reflection

When all light is reflected back at the same angle & an image is formed.

Real Images

Images that can be seen without an optical device & can be projected.

Virtual Images

Images that require an optical device to view.

Images in Plane Mirrors

Example diagram.

SALT

• Size: Larger, smaller, same.
• Attitude: Upright, inverted.
• Location: Distance between mirror/object.
• Type: Real/virtual.

Curved Mirrors

Principal Axis

Horizontal line coming out of the vertex.

Focus

Point at which the image can be seen clearly.

Concave Mirrors Rules

• Light rays parallel to the principal axis will reflect through F.
• Light rays moving in the direction of F will reflect parallel.
• A light ray going through C will reflect back.
• A light ray going through V follows laws of reflection.

Convex Mirrors

• Horizontal rays will go through focus.
• Rays going to focus will go up & from focus.
• Rays going through C will go back on itself.

Refraction

When light slows down as it travels to a denser medium which makes it bend.

Rules for Refraction

As it travels to a denser medium, it goes nearer to the normal, as it travels to a less dense medium, it goes farther from normal.

Partial Reflection

When only some of the light is reflected/refracted & the rest goes back.

Index of Refraction Equation

n = c/v, speed of light is 3 * 10⁸

Total Internal Refraction

When light is reflected inwards rather than refracting out.

• Light travels slower in the 1st medium than the 2nd.
• The angle of incidence is large enough so that no refraction occurs in the medium, instead, the ray is reflected back into the 1st one.

Lenses

Converging Lenses/Convex Lenses

Locate images based on rules.

• Light going through F will refract horizontally.
• Light going horizontal will refract towards the F.
• Light traveling through the optical center will go straight.
• Light going through F’ will go horizontal.

Diverging Lenses/Concave Lenses

• Rays going through the optical center will go straight.
• Light going towards F will go straight.
• Light going parallel will head up from the direction of F.

Example of locating images.

Equations

• d_o – distance of object.
• d_i – distance of image.
• h_o – height of object.
• h_i – height of image.
• f – focus.

Sign Conventions

• d_i negative if virtual, positive if real.
• h_i positive if upright, negative if down.
• h_o positive if upright, negative if down.
• f positive if converging, negative if diverging.

Human Eye

Lens

Changes shape to adjust the focus point of the image in relation to the object distance.

Cornea

Outermost layer of the eye.

Pupil

Adjusts the amount of light going in.

Retina

Light-sensitive area on the back of the eye.

Accommodation

Changing the shape of the lens to allow the image to focus sharply on the retina.

Normal sighted diagram.

Hyperopia Diagram (Far Sighted)

Corrected using converging lens.

• Able to see far, the image if far will focus correctly, near, it won’t. The eyeball is too small.

Presbyopia

• Lens unable to adjust its focus. The person will see far, but not close.

Myopia (Close Sightedness)

Corrected using diverging lens.

• Able to see close, eyeball is too long.

Climate Change

Weather

The day-to-day differences of temperature, precipitation, wind speed, humidity.

Climate

Measure of the usual patterns over a longer period of time & average the results.

Sun emits energy to the Earth, 20% reflected by clouds, 6% by the atmosphere & 4% by Earth’s surface (rest is absorbed).

Infrared Rays, UV, Visible Light, X-rays, Gamma Rays

UV, gamma, & X-rays are ionizing & filtered.

Energy used to warm Earth, but 100% of it is emitted back so that the temperature remains the same.

Climate Zones

Regions with similar climate patterns of precipitation & temperatures.

Ecosystems

Classify more than just climate zones with data on landforms, soil, vegetation, & human factors.

Earth tilt at 23.5 degrees. Sufficient to create an imbalance of light rays per area at different parts of the Earth; resulting in seasons & daylight.

Earth’s Climate System

Lithosphere

Land & ground.

Biosphere

Living things.

Hydrosphere

Water.

Atmosphere

Air.

Air circulates in the form of wind which carries moisture or dryness.

Water circulates in the form of currents, which affects air above to be dry or warm.

Air & water moisture & temperatures can affect land around it.

Convection

: energy moves from place 2 place due 2 changes in density

atmosphere: layers of air surrounding earth

diagram