Biological, Psychological, and Sociological Theories of Crime
Biological Theories of Crime and Deviance
Biological theories attempt to explain crime and deviance by examining biological characteristics.
Theory of the Born Criminal: Broca and Lombroso
Broca and Lombroso believed that the types of offenders could be identified by the shape of the skull. They accepted the influence of learning in criminal behavior but believed that most criminals were biologically degenerate or abnormal. Subsequently, theories were developed to explain the family tree and the hereditary influence on crime trends.
Sheldon’s Body Types and Crime
Sheldon distinguished three types of human physical structures, stating that one of them was associated with crime: mesomorphs, ectomorphs, and endomorphs. He argued that mesomorphs were more prone to crime.
Cowen: Chromosomes and Violent Offenders
Cowen linked the criminal trend to the number of chromosomes in heredity and argued that violent offenders almost always have an extra Y chromosome (males are typically XY, while females are XX).
Psychological Theories of Crime
Psychological theories associate crime with certain personality types.
It is said that psychopaths are emotionless and withdrawn characters who delight in violence itself. These theories of crime can only explain certain aspects of the crime. Even in violent crime, many different factors are present.
Sociological Theories of Crime
A satisfactory explanation of the nature of the offense must be sociological because the definition of crimes depends on the social institutions of a society.
Modern societies include many different subcultures, and behavior that respects the rules of a particular subculture can be seen as deviant outside of it. In a society, there are huge disparities in wealth and power, creating different opportunities for different groups. Social discrimination occurs when we do not offer the same opportunities to all individuals equally. Depending on the social class, certain types of crime are more prevalent.
Sutherland: Differential Association
Sutherland linked crime to differential association: If an individual joins a group of delinquent individuals, they will eventually become delinquent as well. Individuals become delinquents and criminals by association with others who advocate for criminal rules. Criminal behavior is learned primarily within primary groups.
Merton’s Strain Theory and Anomie
Merton’s thesis explains deviance due to the pressure that society exerts on individual achievement. He introduced the concept of anomie: the strain to which individuals are exposed when accepted norms conflict with social reality. Values in modern society are oriented towards material success and competition. The means for achieving this are discipline and hard work. However, those in disadvantaged situations have very limited opportunities for advancement. Those who fail to succeed are pressured to succeed by whatever means necessary, both legitimate and illegitimate. He identified five reactions to the tensions between socially accepted values and ways of achieving them:
- Conformists
- Ritualists
- Rebels
- Innovators (Offenders)
- Retreatists
Lemert and Labeling Theory
Labeling theory suggests that when an individual is accused of being the author of a particular behavior, they eventually accept that behavior as their own. These labels express the power structure of society. The rules in terms of which deviance is defined are designed by the rich for the poor, men for women, older people for younger people, and so on. Once labeled as delinquent, the individual is branded a criminal and is considered unreliable. This impacts the individual, widening the gap with social conventions.
- Primary Deviance: The initial act of transgression.
- Secondary Deviance: When an individual comes to accept the label and considers themselves a deviant.
The process of learning to be deviant is often accentuated by the very organizations that are responsible for correcting deviant behavior, such as reformatories, jails, and boarding schools.