Bioethical Dilemmas: Eugenics, Abortion, and End-of-Life Care

Posted on Jul 2, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Bioethics: Fundamental Concepts and Debates

Bioethics is a field of study concerned with the ethical implications of biological and medical advances. It addresses moral questions arising from healthcare, life sciences, and biotechnology.

Eugenics: Historical Context and Modern Trends

Eugenics refers to agencies that may improve or impair the racial qualities of future generations. It encompasses two possible actions: the selection of certain human groups and the rejection of others.

Eugenics in Antiquity

In ancient Greece, eugenics was applied by the Spartans: if a newborn boy was deemed capable of serving in the army, he was accepted into the community. If he was not, he was killed. Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle justified this practice. The elimination of ‘unfit’ people was generally accepted during Antiquity but largely disappeared as a result of Christianity.

Modern Eugenics: Origins and Ideologies

The creator of modern eugenics is Francis Galton (1822-1911), a cousin of Charles Darwin. Darwin asserted that nature promotes the natural selection of stronger beings. Social Darwinism attempts to apply this interpretation to human societies, suggesting that as ‘inferior’ groups of people overwhelm ‘superior’ groups, corrective measures must be undertaken. This is the origin of social Darwinism. By the late 19th century, the idea gained some traction.

Three Trends in Modern Eugenics:

Anglo-Saxon Liberal Trend: Winston Churchill, as a minister in 1910, proposed a law to sterilize mentally deficient individuals and confine them to work camps. The proposal was rejected in Britain. In the USA, laws favoring the sterilization of ‘unfit’ individuals were enacted. The Racial Integrity Act of 1924 required the racial makeup of individuals to be recorded at birth and prohibited marriage between white and non-white persons. Virginia enacted the first eugenic sterilization law in 1927, authorizing sterilization for ‘unfit’ individuals. By 1931, 27 other American states had enacted similar laws. The case of Carrie Buck demonstrated that such individuals could have normal children and grandchildren.
German Totalitarian Trend: Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919), a German professor, created an ideology that was a mixture of ecology, eugenics, and authoritarianism. It is considered one of the antecedents of National Socialism. Hitler immediately enacted a law in favor of sterilization on July 14, 1933, following the American example. The elimination of sick and elderly people was carried out without prior legal basis, which is why it was deemed a crime at the Nuremberg trials after 1945. SS doctors operated under private authorization signed by Hitler.
Scandinavian Social Democratic Trend: This trend was connected with a socialist interpretation: the belief that a new society should be created, necessitating the sterilization of ‘unfit’ individuals.

Abortion: Ethical and Moral Considerations

Abortion is the provoked death of an embryo or fetus. It has never been accepted by the Catholic Church.

Reasons for Opposition to Abortion

Reasons for opposition include:

It is considered a human being deserving of respect and protection.
If respected, it will develop into a person, like any other.

The elimination of a suspected deficient future child can be classified as a form of eugenics.

Arguments Against Abortion: A Critical Look

The concept of a ‘pre-embryo’: This term is often deemed unacceptable, as it implies a ‘pre-person,’ suggesting that the entity is not yet a person, thereby justifying actions like abortion or experimentation.
The idea that an entity cannot think, and therefore is not a person: This is seen as a reductionist view, similar to certain statements by Descartes. However, a human being encompasses more than just thought; it includes all biological functions, which cannot be separated.
The argument ‘It is my body and I decide’: Critics argue that the fetus or embryo is not merely a part of a woman’s body but is a distinct entity residing within. This is supported by assisted reproduction techniques, where an embryo can be created outside the woman’s body.

Assisted Reproduction Technologies (ART)

Assisted Reproduction refers to scientific techniques where a third party may have a role. These methods do not inherently resolve infertility but assist in conception.

Artificial Insemination

Artificial insemination involves placing sperm into a female’s uterus or cervix through artificial means, bypassing natural copulation.

Accepted (Homologous): When a couple is unable to conceive naturally, and the woman cannot become pregnant after copulation, doctors may facilitate the spermatozoon’s entry into the ovule’s nucleus, leading to fertilization and embryo formation.
Not Accepted (Heterologous): Sperm is obtained from an external donor and then introduced into the uterus. The Catholic Church does not recognize this system as a valid method, as it separates sexuality from procreation. Additionally, the success rate can be inferior.

In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

The IVF process typically involves:

Hormonal treatment to stimulate the production of multiple ovules.
Sperm obtained through intracorporeal means.
In vitro fertilization: microscopic verification of successful fertilization.
Typically, around 9 fertilized embryos are produced.

Ethical Concerns with IVF

Destruction of ‘non-viable’ or ‘excess’ embryos.
Implantation of multiple embryos (e.g., three) into the uterus, often leading to selective reduction.
Cryopreservation of ‘excess’ embryos: These frozen embryos are often used for research, which some argue could lead to the development of treatments for diseases like cancer and leukemia, but also raises ethical questions about the status of the embryo.

Human Cloning: Possibilities and Prohibitions

Human cloning involves creating an identical genetic copy of a previous human being, though achieving an exact replica is not entirely possible.

Limitations of Cloning

Current techniques cannot produce exact clones, as environmental factors also play a role.
We primarily understand phenotypes, not genotypes, and the future phenotype cannot be fully predicted or controlled.

Types of Cloning

Reproductive Cloning: Aimed at creating a new human being. This is widely forbidden, including in EU countries.
Therapeutic Cloning: Involves creating an embryo to harvest stem cells for medical purposes, such as replacing damaged organs or cells. The cloned embryo would contain DNA from the transplant patient, potentially eliminating issues of immune rejection. From a moral standpoint, it is often considered unethical as it involves creating an embryo with the intent to destroy it for research or therapy.

Euthanasia: Ethical and Legal Debates

Euthanasia is the provoked death of an individual to alleviate suffering. It is not viewed with approval by the teachings of the Catholic Church.

Forms of Euthanasia

There are generally two forms: passive euthanasia (withholding life support) and active euthanasia (direct intervention to end life), which can be voluntary (decided by the individual) or involuntary (decided by others).

Arguments Against Euthanasia

A common justification is the concept of ‘dignity in death.’ However, critics argue this is a flawed premise, asserting that every human being possesses an inherent and identical degree of dignity, regardless of their condition.

Further reflections against euthanasia include:

It alters the traditional understanding of law and medicine, which are historically committed to protecting human life.
It could lead to a legal system that grants impunity to those who end another’s life.
Public authorities may be seen as renouncing their duty to protect human life.
Vulnerable individuals, such as the elderly or those suffering from depression, may feel pressured or remain in subordinated situations.

Ultimately, it is argued that euthanasia goes against the primacy of human life, asserting that no one has the right to decide another person’s death.