Baroque Literature and Theatre: A Comprehensive Guide
1. Society and Culture in the Baroque Theatre
The seventeenth century witnessed the decline of the Spanish Empire, leading to a period of significant economic, political, and social upheaval. Spain lost its dominant global position. One of the most notable aspects of this social crisis was the clash between the bourgeoisie and the nobility. The nobility leveraged the monarchy to resist change, weakening the bourgeoisie and the populace. The absolute monarchy aimed to preserve the rigid social structure and uphold traditional values.
Aspiring members of the bourgeoisie and wealthy peasants sought to elevate their social status by joining the nobility. The Spanish baroque monarchy became institutionalized, serving as a distraction for the people and creating a false image of wealth and power.
Baroque theatre showcased an interest in novelty, strangeness, artifice, and spectacle, aligning perfectly with the tastes of the public. From the king to the commoner, theatre exalted various figures. Notably, plays often featured the villain or the wealthy farmer, emphasizing originality and the right to defend one’s honor.
2. Theatrical Life in the Baroque Era
The second half of the 16th century saw the emergence of the first public theatres, initially known as corrales. These courtyard theatres had a structure that accommodated different social groups in designated areas. Male spectators stood in the courtyard, while mosqueteros (musketeers) guarded the stage. The stage itself was minimal, consisting of a platform against one of the courtyard walls, with no curtains or elaborate sets.
Theatre troupes were named based on the number of actors they comprised. Performances in these popular theatres began in the early afternoon, lasting two to three hours. In addition to this popular form of theatre, the Baroque period also saw the development of courtly and religious theatre.
Courtly theatre catered to the monarchs’ preferences, transforming palace halls and royal residences into stages with elaborate sets and machinery imported from Italy. This facilitated the development of mythological and magical comedies.
Religious theatre was dominated by mystery plays performed on decorated moving wagons called carros, utilizing stage machinery.
3. Dramatic Subgenres
While the most characteristic genre of Baroque theatre was the comedia nueva (new comedy), other genres also garnered significant interest:
- Auto sacramental: A one-act play intended to exalt the Eucharist, often featuring allegorical characters.
- Entremés: A short comic interlude, typically featuring stock characters like the fool or simpleton.
- Loa: An introductory piece performed before the main comedy to capture the audience’s attention.
- Baile: A combination of music, song, and dance performed between the second and third acts of a comedy.
- Jácara: A poetic work of popular origin with minimal action, accompanied by music and dance.
- Mojiganga: A very short, farcical piece originating from popular carnivals, initially performed in the streets and later adapted for the stage.
4. The New Comedy (Comedia Nueva)
The comedia nueva was a highly successful theatrical formula during the Baroque period. The term “comedy” referred to any play, regardless of whether it was comic or tragicomic.
A. Origins
The comedia nueva emerged from a formula established by Lope de Vega. Another crucial element was Lope de Vega’s residence in Valencia, a city with a vibrant theatrical scene.
B. Features
In 1609, Lope de Vega published The New Art of Writing Plays, in which he defended the comedia nueva formula. Key features include:
- Blend of comedy and tragedy: Baroque theatre often combined comic and tragic elements.
- Rejection of the three unities: Baroque theatre disregarded the classical unities of time, place, and action, allowing for temporal and spatial jumps and changes in scenery.
- Three-act structure: Plays were typically divided into three acts: introduction, development, and resolution.
- Polymetry: Different verse forms were used depending on the scene and characters.
- Language adapted to characters and situations: Baroque theatre emphasized decorum, using language appropriate to the characters and context.
- Incorporation of songs: Musical interludes were common in Baroque plays.
C. Themes
The comedia nueva explored a wide range of themes, drawing inspiration from medieval epics, Renaissance literature, Spanish history, mythology, the Bible, the lives of saints (hagiography), and folklore.
Two central concepts in Baroque theatre were honor and honra. Honor was inherited and depended on nobility and purity of blood, while honra was the respect earned through one’s actions. Revenge was often necessary to preserve honra.
D. Characters
The comedia nueva featured a cast of stock characters:
- The galán (gallant) and dama (lady): The main characters, typically noble, brave, beautiful, and graceful.
- The gracioso (witty servant): Often the servant of the galán, providing comic relief and counterpoint to the main plot.
- The king: Could be portrayed as a wise old king or a proud, unjust young king.
- The poderoso (powerful man): A nobleman who disrupts social harmony.
- The barba (blocking character): Could be a father, husband, or brother who obstructs the lovers’ relationship.
- The villain: Often a wealthy peasant of pure blood.
E. Authors
The two most prominent figures of Baroque theatre were Lope de Vega and Calderón de la Barca. Other notable playwrights include Tirso de Molina, Guillén de Castro, and Luis Vélez de Guevara.
5. Lope de Vega
Lope de Vega’s dramatic output was immense, with an estimated 1,500 plays attributed to him. His extraordinary talent and creativity earned him the nicknames “Monster of Nature” and “Phoenix of Wits.”
A. Characteristics of his Theatre
In addition to the common elements of Baroque theatre, Lope de Vega’s plays are characterized by:
- A strong sense of lyricism.
- Natural and believable characters, despite adhering to established types.
B. Works
- Comedies based on Spanish history and legend: The Knight of Olmedo, Fuenteovejuna.
- Comedies of invention: The Dog in the Manger, Punishment Without Revenge.
- Religious comedies: The True Cross.
- Mythological comedies: The Golden Fleece.
6. Calderón de la Barca
Calderón de la Barca began his dramatic career following the model of the comedia nueva but infused it with his own unique worldview.
A. Characteristics of his Drama
Calderón’s plays are marked by:
- Clarity and organization of action.
- Focus on the protagonist’s internal conflict.
- Emphasis on the monologue as a means of exploring the protagonist’s inner turmoil.
B. Works
- Dramas of honor and jealousy: The Physician of His Honor.
- Biblical and religious dramas: Life is a Dream.
- Comedies of intrigue: The Phantom Lady, House with Two Doors, Badly Guarded.
- Philosophical dramas: Life is a Dream.
- Autos sacramentales: The Great Theatre of the World.
7. Tirso de Molina
Tirso de Molina’s The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest (1630) introduced the enduring myth of Don Juan, the archetypal young deceiver and seducer of women who offends both God and the dead.