Aviation Security Transformation After 9/11 Attacks
The Aviation Industry in the Post-9/11 World
Before and After the 9/11 Attacks
- Unlawful acts have always been present in aviation but were traditionally low impact and low visibility.
- Modest security measures had been in effect since the late 1960s, but they were relatively inexpensive and tolerated.
- The 9/11 attacks initiated the “Global War on Terror” and led to an exponential increase in security risks, costs, and disruption to air travel.
- What we have now is the “new normal” for a generation or longer, so it must be understood and managed.
- The entire security “frame of reference” changed as a result of 9/11, and the entire world is affected and engaged.
Security: Definition and Importance
- “Security” (in English) refers to the prevention of, or protection from, unlawful activities—not accidents. (Note: This is distinct from “safety,” which addresses accidents. The distinction can be less clear in languages like Spanish, where one term might encompass both.)
- Unlawful acts against aviation range from minimally harmful acts of “air rage” to catastrophic terrorist attacks such as 9/11.
- They may be “simple” criminal acts or terrorist acts.
- In any event, they are disruptive and harmful to civil aviation.
- “Terrorist” attacks can and have caused massive social and economic damage.
- Our primary task is to understand and effectively manage this complex situation.
Terrorism: Key Characteristics
- The use of “asymmetrical” threats and violence against innocent or random “third parties” to create fear in order to gain some objective, commonly political, ideological, or religious.
- Terrorists seek to convert or destroy targets.
- Attacks are designed for far-reaching repercussions far beyond the immediate target, often hoping for societal/governmental overreaction.
- Conducted by organized groups, but typically non-uniformed.
- Commonly perpetrated by non-state groups.
- Terrorist groups cannot defeat conventional armed forces through direct confrontation.
- Terrorism is a violation of international laws.
Asymmetric Acts: Nature and Examples
- The use of “small” resources to achieve “large” effects, far out of proportion to the means employed.
- For example, one suicide human bomber used to kill dozens of third-party innocents in airport terminals, stadiums, or shopping areas.
- Another example could be using a one-ounce vial of Ebola to infect and kill hundreds or thousands of people.
Specific Objectives of the 9/11 Attacks
- To demonstrate the ability to attack America’s symbols of power and influence.
- To damage the U.S. economy.
- To damage global peace and security.
Why Aviation Was Chosen as a Tool by Terrorists
- Aircraft and aviation capture the world’s attention and imagination.
- Air travel is a thread that connects global society.
- Airliners have a high density of innocent victims.
- Airliners can be viewed as huge flying “bombs.”
- Airliners can be isolated and possess mobility, making them controllable targets once seized.
- Airliners are very vulnerable.
Why Aviation Is a General Target for Terrorism
- Attacks have massive effects on national and global economies.
- They cause widespread effects on personal and business travel.
- Each terrorist act against aviation directly and indirectly affects a huge percentage of the global population.
- Attacks assure world attention for the terror group and its issues for a considerable time.
Economic Reasons for Targeting Aviation
- Air transport is a pillar of the world economy.
- Destruction of aircraft and aviation infrastructure is relatively easy for attackers and expensive for the victims.
Case Study: The 9/11 Terror Attacks
- The Perpetrators:
- 19 terrorists commandeered 4 U.S. airliners.
- Weapons included “surprise,” box cutters, and possibly other small items like mace or pepper spray (original text mentioned shoelaces, which is less commonly cited for 9/11 weaponry).
- The Targets:
- Twin World Trade Center towers in New York City.
- The U.S. Defense Department headquarters, “The Pentagon,” in Arlington, Virginia.
- The U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. (believed to be the target of Flight 93, which crashed in Pennsylvania).
Fundamental Failures of Pre-9/11 Security
- A failure of imagination.
- A failure of policy.
- A failure of capabilities.
- A failure of management.
- A failure of execution.
- Most of these failures were, at their core, failures of “mindset.”
A Failure of Imagination
- Not conceiving of suicide bombers being used in this manner.
- Not envisioning aircraft as flying bombs.
- Underestimating the use of simple, common items as weapons.
- Not preparing for multiple hijackings simultaneously.
- Not having protocols for loss of radio or radar contact with hijacked aircraft in such a scenario.
- Lack of preparedness for military interception of domestic airliners.
- Lack of clear policy on military destruction of civil airliners if necessary.
A Failure of Policy
- Failure of the government to have an integrated and unified intelligence community.
- Failure to account for and act upon multiple threat indicators.
- Policy allowing short knives on passengers (a potential factor in 9/11).
- FAA/airline policy of compliance with hijackers.
- Lack of a comprehensive passenger screening policy, including:
- Intelligence-based screening.
- Profiling.
- Thorough physical screening, searching, and inspecting.
- A primary focus on detecting bombs rather than hijackers.
- Having the FAA solely responsible for aviation security, potentially creating conflicting priorities.
A Failure of Capabilities
- Regarding Security:
- Inadequate detection and identification of rogue aircraft.
- Slow and ineffective response to rogue civil aircraft in domestic airspace.
- Lack of non-catastrophic means to intercept and terminate rogue aircraft.
- Regarding Response:
- Poor compatibility of inter-agency communications systems.
- Insufficient capacity of communications modes during a crisis.
- Inability to deal effectively with catastrophic building damage on such a scale.
- Inability to handle mega-building emergency responses.
A Failure of Management
- Regarding Security:
- Failure of government to act on multiple threat indicators.
- Failure of FAA officials to monitor and act on intelligence.
- Failure of the FAA to implement many security actions as directed.
- Failure of government to develop coordinated civil-military response policies and procedures.
- Regarding Response:
- Failure of New York City to have an integrated emergency response plan between the NYPD and FDNY.
- Failure of the World Trade Center management to have adequate emergency training and drills for a mass disaster.
- Failure of New York City to integrate 911 Center operators effectively into emergency plans.
A Failure of Execution: Security
- Questionable passenger pre-boarding screening effectiveness.
- Confused and ineffective NORAD (North American Aerospace Defense Command) response.
- Failure of inter-agency intelligence exchange and dissemination, such as:
- Information regarding foreign nationals receiving flight training in the U.S.
- Reports of suspicious activity among pilot students.
- Failure of the FAA and other agencies to act on solid intelligence.
A Failure of Execution: Response
- Confusing, erroneous, and conflicting instructions issued to civilians during the attacks.
- Underestimation and lack of appreciation for the extent of the World Trade Center damage.
- Failure of individual civilians to respond to fear and common sense, sometimes due to over-reliance on “instructions.”
Key Issues in the 9/11 Response
- Cell phone circuits were overloaded and became of little use.
- Radio channels were overloaded.
- Serious command, control, and communications (C3) problems existed, including unclear “command” responsibilities and inadequate interagency communications.
- Key elements of all relevant agencies were not trained or included in important aspects of emergency plans (e.g., FDNY & NYPD 911 operators).
- “First Responders,” including private citizens, played a key role in successes.
- “Civilians” need to take personal responsibility for maximizing their probability of survival during a disaster; fear and common sense are often the best indicators.
- Significant mindset issues were identified as a critical factor.
Characteristics of the 9/11 Attack Preparation
- Targets were selected for maximum symbolic and actual effect.
- The mode of attack was carefully considered and planned.
- Potential attackers were carefully selected and vetted.
- Elaborate reconnaissance of targets was conducted.
- Extensive and prolonged training was undertaken by the attackers.
- Rehearsals of the operation were conducted.
- Airline operational methods and security vulnerabilities were observed and exploited.
- Planners made rational changes to their plans based on observations.
- Patience and persistence were demonstrated throughout the planning and execution phases.
Lessons Learned from Hindsight After 9/11
- The enemy is patient, lethal, and determined.
- Institutions protecting the U.S. did not understand the gravity of the threat and did not adjust policies, plans, and practices sufficiently to deter or defeat it.
- Bad assumptions can lead to horrific consequences.
The Pearl Harbor Lesson (1941) for Intelligence
The “intelligence community” should:
- Imagine how surprise attacks may be launched.
- Identify telltale indicators that such attacks are being planned.
- Develop and collect intelligence on such indicators.
- Develop defenses to deflect the most dangerous possibilities, or at least provide early warning.
9/11 Commission: Identified Weaknesses
- Pre-screening procedures that focused on detecting potential bombers rather than hijackers.
- Relaxed checkpoint screening and permissive rules regarding small knives.
- A lack of in-flight security measures, such as air marshals and reinforced cockpit doors.
- An industry-wide strategy of complying with hijackers in a non-confrontational manner.
- A lack of protocols and capabilities for executing a coordinated FAA-military response to multiple hijackings and suicidal hijackings.
9/11 Commission: Key Recommendations
- Enhance passenger pre-screening.
- Improve measures to detect explosives on passengers.
- Examine human factors issues at screening checkpoints.
- Expedite deployment of in-line baggage screening technologies.
- Intensify efforts to identify, screen, and track cargo.
- Deploy hardened cargo containers.
- Institute risk-based prioritization as the basis for transportation security policy and create a strategic plan for aviation security.