Aristotle’s Philosophy: Metaphysics, Ethics, and Politics
Aristotle’s Philosophical Ideas
Wisdom and Experience
In this fragment of Aristotle’s work, there is a concern about wisdom and experience, discerning which is more important. He speaks of recognizing our ignorance to begin philosophizing. In a metaphysical sense, science provides the four causes. It also reflects on the substance of all things, reviewing what earlier philosophers said.
Aristotle considers experience unique and practical, stating it involves knowing what happens. However, knowing is a theoretical and universal art, leading the wise to discover the ‘why’ and causes of things, granting them wisdom.
According to Aristotle, the expert finds out the ‘what’ (what happens), while the wise study the ‘why’ and the cause. He establishes an order: sensation leads to experience, which becomes an art, and theoretical arts are above that. Through this, he concludes that wisdom is about causes and principles.
Admiration and Ignorance
Aristotle explains that admiration for things and recognizing our ignorance compels us to pursue philosophy, seeking knowledge for its own sake, not for utility.
This reflects Socratic influence, as both believe that attaining wisdom involves admitting ignorance, contrasting with ambitious philosophers like the Sophists.
He also recognizes philosophy as an encyclopedic science, potentially connected to religion and God, which is also a worthy science.
Metaphysics and the Four Causes
Turning to Metaphysics, Aristotle explains his idea of science from the First Cause, with four aspects:
- Substance and essence
- Matter
- The cause that produces movement
- The final cause that opposes motion
Knowing these, Aristotle believes one can speak of the principle of the cosmos, giving rise to ‘First Physics’.
Continuing on Metaphysics, Aristotle gives an overview of theories about the nature of the first philosophers, accusing them of defining them only superficially.
Ethics and Politics
Social Nature of Humans
Aristotle’s Ethics and Politics are closely related. Humans are compelled to live in society. Aristotle divides them: some are naturally free, while others, like farmers, artisans, and merchants, are not free because they must work to live.
He also separates men and women, stating women are not of the same nature as men and not part of free human beings. Only men can be free, live virtuously, and achieve happiness. To achieve happiness, men must live in the polis and interact with their peers.
The State and its Purpose
The natural source of the city is the house, an early community covering basic human needs. From houses comes the tribe, then villages, and finally the city, the perfect partnership because it can meet all human needs.
Only the state can ensure good and justice prevail. Its end is the moral perfection and happiness of citizens. According to Aristotle, city life, especially the division of labor, must allow a privileged few to devote themselves to the philosophic life, study, and research of truth.
Aristotle’s pragmatism suggests a mixture of democracy and aristocracy, based on the middle classes and governed by the best, consistent with his theory of virtue as a middle ground, adapted to specific circumstances, human nature, and prudence.
Happiness as the Supreme Good
For Aristotle, the final and supreme good of human life is happiness (eudaimonia). Happiness is the only good sought for itself, while other goods are sought to achieve happiness. Aristotle’s ethics is considered hedonistic.
Aristotle states that humans act for an end, but that end varies depending on individual nature. He distinguishes humans from other beings by their rationality; therefore, they achieve happiness through reason. Intellectual activity brings happiness to humans.
Humans should develop good habits or customs that are perfected according to their nature, i.e., virtues. Virtue is defined as arete – excellence, capacity, ability. The aim of virtue is happiness.
Aristotelian ethics proposes happiness as the end and perfection of human life, achieved by living virtuously and seeking theoretical truth. This happiness is only attainable with men living in the polis. For Aristotle, ethics depends on politics.