Aristotle’s Philosophy, Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, and Moral Development

Posted on Dec 17, 2024 in Philosophy and ethics

Aristotle’s Theory

Aristotle’s theory is also dualist (body and soul). He thought that the soul is the essence of being human and that body and soul were united. He distinguishes three types of soul:

Vegetative: Responsible for survival and reproduction functions. This type of soul coincides with that of plants.
Sensitive: Has the ability to perceive sensitive qualities, regulate memory, and control mobility. Animals possess both the vegetative and sensitive souls.
Rational: Regulated by reason. Humans especially have two functions:
- Volitional: Refers to the will.
- Intellective: Capacity for knowledge building. This is specifically human.

Aristotle believed that the best life would be one oriented by reason.

Freud’s Theory

Freud was a psychiatrist who wanted to go beyond the analysis of the human being. Like his mentor, he wanted to heal people with hysteria (mental blocking). He did this through hypnosis, which allowed him to unlock and enter the mind to solve problems. In another case of hysteria, some people could not walk, but once under the influence of hypnosis, they could. He concluded that the damage was not physical but psychological, hidden somewhere in the mind, which he called the unconscious (an unknown part of the psyche where contents that cannot be known are stored, and where conflicts that generate disorders reside).

Freud developed tools to study the unconscious, such as the interpretation of dreams and free association of ideas. He also proposed “topical” models (parts) to explain the psyche.

Topic 1

Conscious: The part of the psyche that we know, what is present to us. The part that was known until then.
Unconscious: The unknown part of the psyche. The hidden part where contents that cannot reach the conscious are stored. Disorders that cause conflicts remain saved here.
Preconscious: The consequences of the unconscious. It is a kind of filter or censorship between the unconscious and the conscious, responsible for deciding what content can pass from the unconscious to the conscious.

Topic 2

Ego: The rational part of our psyche. It seeks consistency between what we want to do and guides our actions. It contains conscious content.
Id: The irrational part of the psyche. It contains drives (instincts, desires). The id is not subject to the laws of logic; it is inconsistent and illogical. It is represented in dreams as impossible things. It is present in all parts of the psyche, but more so in the unconscious.
Superego: Corresponds to the preconscious. It represents the assimilation of norms and moral values.

Functioning of the Psyche

Freud said that the psyche is not static but dynamic and in continuous conflict. He described the energy that makes up the psyche as drives (instincts, similar to those of animals). He described four factors/elements that characterize the operation of a drive:

Source: Where a drive originates. It always starts from a part of the body (e.g., adrenaline).
Impetus: Implementation of the psyche to satisfy the drive. The body prepares to carry out the drive (e.g., force in the arms to strike).
Object: The element used to satisfy the drive (e.g., a book, a pistol, a knife).
End: The end of the whole drive is to be satisfied.

Freud made two classifications of drives:

1st Classification:

Ego Drives: Aim for the survival of the individual (e.g., hunger).
Sexual Drives: Allow for the survival of the species by establishing relationships and promoting coexistence.

2nd Classification:

Eros, or Life Drives: Freud combined sexual and ego drives. These drives regulate the tendency to live in society or community. All humans have inhibited drives.
Thanatos, or Death Drive: Explains aggression, self-destructive tendencies, and the separation of individuals.

Operation of the Psyche

Operation is troublesome because the conflict is between the two processes that characterize the functioning of our psyche. These processes are simultaneous and occur while being different and opposed.

Processes

Primary Process: Governed by the pleasure principle. It occurs in the unconscious and has the id as its protagonist. It consists of finding satisfaction for our drives.
Secondary Process: Governed by the reality principle. It occurs in the conscious and preconscious, with the ego and superego as protagonists. It seeks to satisfy personal desires in accordance with the norms established by society (contrary to the pleasure principle).

Freud says that we must find a balance between the two processes. Maturation involves aligning what we want with what we should do. If the conflict is not resolved, defense mechanisms may be employed:

Positive: Sublimation: Reducing our impulses towards creative work (e.g., writing novels about assassinations, creating music).
Negative: Denial, projection, regression: Projecting one’s desires onto others. Paranoia, the fear that others will do what one thinks. Regression: Returning to childish behaviors (involuntary).

Morality and Ethics

Ethics: A reflection on the foundations of morality. Justification for considering things good or bad.
Morality: Rules of conduct governing a person’s scale of values, moral code. There are moral values that we share with others.

The Moral Nature of Human Beings

Amoral: Does not know what is good or bad (children, the sick).
Moral: Knows what is good or bad.
Immoral: Has moral conscience, can distinguish between good and bad, but acts badly.

All human beings are moral by nature. Why are we moral? Unlike animals, humans are endowed with few instincts. In the face of a stimulus, we have an infinite number of possible responses. This means that between the stimulus and the response, there is a gap that allows for “free will.” We can choose, unlike animals. This means we can evaluate and choose. We build our morality when we choose and value, constructing our scale of values.

Morality depends on:

The life project we have (what kind of person I want to become).
Social models (society conditions us).

The end of the assimilation process leads to the establishment of moral conscience.

Acquisition of Moral Conscience

This is the internalization of moral values. It is acquired through the maturation of the person and is a consequence of learning (family, school, and experience).

Features

Distinguishing between good and evil.
Self-judgment (like Jiminy Cricket). Ability to judge one’s own actions, feelings of guilt, and remorse.

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Preconventional Level

People respond according to consequences or the power of those who establish the rules.

Stage 1: Obedience and Fear of Punishment: Rules are respected out of obedience and fear of punishment. External agents determine what is right and wrong (children, some adults).
Stage 2: Promoting One’s Own Interests: The goal is to do what satisfies one’s own interests. Rules are seen as a game, made out of selfishness (children, some adults who will respect you if you respect them).

Conventional Level

Good or bad is identified with what society deems as such. People identify with the group.

Stage 3: Interpersonal Expectations: We are driven by the desire to please, be accepted, and loved. We want to be loved but let others lead us (adolescence).
Stage 4: Established Social Norms: Doing what is right means following established norms to provide a common social good. This requires a personal commitment (adulthood, most of the population).

Postconventional Level

Understanding and accepting general moral principles, principles that are more important than the rules.

Stage 5: Priority Rights and Social Contracts: Recognizes that all human beings have the right to life and liberty above all else. A moral obligation may be imposed against a norm.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles: Universal ethical principles take precedence over institutional and legal obligations. The golden rule: “Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.” Individuals have sufficient strength to confront unjust laws. The supreme moral stage (Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr.).

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow’s hierarchy states that humans need to meet certain needs at different times in their lives (in the order presented, following a biological law). To move up the pyramid, one must fulfill the needs at the lower levels. Not everyone reaches the top; some may remain at or below the middle.

The Problem of Freedom

Freedom is a prerequisite for morality. In humans, between the stimulus and the response, there is a distance that allows us to build morality and make decisions. Without this distance, we could never judge human actions as good or bad (“free will”). One might wonder about the existence of freedom and if it is possible to be free. Freedom can be understood in two ways, two dimensions:

Internal Freedom (Choice): The freedom to choose. This presupposes that we have moral responsibility for our actions. This freedom must accept that it is still conditioned by internal and external factors. (e.g., I choose not to study because I have other responsibilities).
External Freedom (Action): Depends on external contexts of social, political, etc. The freedom of the individual within the social environment has limits for coexistence. The difficulty lies in knowing what the limit should be to determine individual freedom.

The question remains whether freedom exists and if it is possible. Philosophers defend two positions:

Determinism: Denies the possibility of freedom.
Libertarianism: Defends that freedom is possible.