Aristotle’s Philosophical Foundations: Soul, Ethics, and Governance
While Plato viewed man as an accidental composite of two distinct substances (body and soul), Aristotle presented a unified, spiritual, and non-biological perspective. For Aristotle, man is a single substance, a complete living organism, composed of a body (the subject) and a soul (the form). Aristotelian psychology is organized as follows:
Aristotle’s Anthropology: Body and Soul
Unlike Plato, who believed the soul and body were separable substances, with the soul potentially surviving the body (implying immortality or transmigration), Aristotle conceived of an indivisible, unified biological structure. For Aristotle, the soul is not separate from its biological functions; it is the *form* of the body, though it retains a metaphysical principle, perhaps influenced by Platonic thought.
- The lower psychic functions include the vegetative soul, which directs basic life activities such as growth, nutrition, and reproduction. It also encompasses the sensitive soul, which governs instincts, feelings, perceptions, and motor functions.
- The psyche also includes the higher intellectual function or rational soul, which enables thought and reasoning. The vegetative soul is found only in plants; animals possess both the vegetative and sensitive souls; and only humans possess all three: vegetative, sensitive, and rational souls.
- Aristotle’s conception of the soul holds significant biological importance, despite its Platonic influences. Consequently, he denied the immortality of the soul, asserting that as a complete living organism, when man perishes, so too does his soul.
Aristotle’s Politics: The Citizen and the State
In his writings on ethics and politics, Aristotle develops the practical sciences, studying human actions and their ultimate goals. As previously discussed, these ends are achieved through the practice of virtues, leading to a dignified life appropriate to human abilities.
Aristotle famously defines man as a political animal (zoon politikon), meaning he is naturally inclined to live in a polis or city-state, striving for the common good in harmony with others, thereby becoming a citizen. From this foundation, he examines the political conditions necessary to achieve both individual happiness and the common good.
As man is a political animal, the State must provide the conditions for a good or happy life. Politically, this translates into the creation of a just state, where special interests do not prevail over the general interest.
The link between the state and the individual is so profound that Aristotle asserts an overlap between the good (happiness) of the individual and the good of the city (the common good). However, he emphasizes that the good of the city is ultimately far more important than that of the individual.
Aristotle identifies three main political regimes: monarchy, aristocracy, and polity (often translated as ‘republic’). All three are considered valid, provided they do not degenerate into their corrupt forms: tyranny, oligarchy, and demagogy (or mob rule), respectively.
Each of these forms possesses inherent virtues that, ideally, should be combined to form an ideal state (a concept clearly influenced by Plato). Key virtues include freedom, wealth creation, and excellence (defined as the existence of valuable individuals or merit). Education would hold great importance in such a state, responsible for cultivating worthy citizens whose excellence would be rooted in intelligence and the ability to think (another clear Platonic influence).
Aristotle appears to favor the form of state he calls polity (often equated with a constitutional republic or a moderate democracy), in which the majority rules for the common good. Politeia is characterized by the predominance of the middle classes, operates under a constitution, and is capable of embodying the three aforementioned values: freedom, wealth, and excellence.
Unlike Plato, who focused exclusively on his ideal polis, Aristotle’s conception of politics stemmed from the analysis of actually existing political regimes in Greece. This demonstrates that Aristotle devoted special attention to the various constitutions known at the time, which represented the legal frameworks defining political relations among citizens and between states.