Aristotle: Hylomorphism, Causes, and Forms of Government

Posted on Sep 29, 2025 in Philosophy and ethics

Aristotelian Metaphysics: Substance and Change

Any substance, according to the Hylomorphic Theory, is comprised of two components:

  • Matter (Hyle): The substrate or potentiality from which something is made.
  • Form (Morphe): The essence, pattern, or idea that configures the matter (analogous to Plato’s Idea).

For example: In a table, the matter (Hyle) is the wood, and the form (Morphe) is the idea the carpenter held.

Dynamism: Potency and Act

Potency (Dynamis): The tendency of matter to acquire a new form; the future state. An astronaut currently acting as an astronaut, but potentially could be more.

Act (Energeia): The form of something at a particular time; the present state. Act involves two types of change:

  1. Substantial Change: A substance is no longer itself (e.g., Generation or Corruption, such as birth and death).
  2. Accidental Change: A substance changes without changing its fundamental form (e.g., Locative movement).

The Four Causes of Substances

  1. Material Cause: The substance from which something is made (e.g., Pre-Socratic philosophy, Greek Atomists).
  2. Formal Cause: The essence or pattern (e.g., Plato, Pythagoreans).
  3. Efficient (Motive) Cause: The agent or builder who initiates the change.
  4. Final Cause (Telos): The purpose or ultimate good for which the substance exists.

Hylomorphism and the Human Soul

In the case of the human being, the Hylomorphic Theory defines:

  • Matter: The Body.
  • Form: The Soul.

There are different types of soul, categorized by their function and structure:

Vegetative Soul
Purpose: Conservation of the individual. Function: Nutrition and reproduction. Structure: Organisms and Plants.
Sensitive Soul
Purpose: Movement and sensory perception. Function: Five senses, common sense, memory, and imagination. Structure: Animals.
Intellectual Soul
Purpose: Reasoning and thought. Function: Will, intellectual understanding (agent and patient). Structure: Humans.

Aristotle’s Political Philosophy

The human being is a Zoon Politikon (political animal), requiring a Polis (city-state) for full development. Political activity is considered superior to ethical activity because it encompasses the well-being of more people. Aristotle describes three phases of social development:

  1. Family: The basic social unit, linked to nature. Purpose is procreation and care of basic needs.
  2. Village (Tribe): The union of several families, ensuring more secure survival.
  3. Polis (City-State): The full realization of human potential. It allows for complete mental and psychological development of its members, governed by laws and regulations.

Human beings possess both Phone (voice), which expresses basic states of being alive, and Logos (reasoned speech/language). Logos allows for thought and language, distinguishing humans from other animals.

Forms of Government

Aristotle categorized governments based on who rules and whether they rule for the common good (Straight) or for self-interest (Corrupt).

Straight Governments (Rule for the Common Good)

  • Monarchy: Rule by a single person.
  • Aristocracy: Rule by the best citizens.
  • Politeia (Constitutional Democracy): Rule by the citizens/politicians.

Corrupt Governments (Rule for Self-Interest)

  • Tyranny: Degeneration of Monarchy; a single person obeying only their own wishes.
  • Oligarchy: Degeneration of Aristocracy; rule by the wealthy classes seeking their own benefits.
  • Demagogy (Extreme Democracy): Degeneration of Politeia; the masses seeking their own benefit over the common good.

Justice and the Unmoved Mover

For Aristotle, justice holds both moral and political value. Morally, it is the balance of virtues; politically, it is acting adequately according to the laws of the state.

Justice is divided into two types:

  • Commutative Justice: Seeks equality for all in transactions and exchanges.
  • Distributive Justice: Regulates the distribution of rewards based on the merits of each individual.

Noesis Noeseos (Thinking of Thinking): This concept represents pure thought and the right order of everything. The first principle, Noesis Noeseos, is without cause and is a pure act, which Aristotle identifies with the idea of God (the Unmoved Mover).