Argumentation: Structure, Types, and Resources
The Argumentative Text: Key Elements
The primary purpose of an argumentative text is to be convincing. It utilizes various elements to support its ideas, such as facts, opinions, and evidence. These elements constitute the arguments, and the thesis is the central vision that the issuer aims for the receiver to accept.
Deductive and Inductive Arguments
- Deductive: The thesis appears in the introduction. It moves from the thesis to the conclusion (the cause).
- Inductive: The thesis appears at the end (the conclusion). It moves from the causes to the thesis.
Resources to Support the Argument
- Counterargument: Presents possible objections to the main arguments.
- Comparison: Used to demonstrate a point.
- Definition: Specifies the meaning of terms used.
- Citation of External Information: Includes news or data from external sources.
- Citation of Authority: Supports the issuer’s credibility.
- Exemplification: Provides examples to illustrate the argument’s strength and evaluate others’ arguments and conclusions.
Internal Structure
- Thesis: The core idea being defended; it has a controversial character, often presented as a declarative sentence with a finite verb in the indicative mood. It usually begins the argument (in deductive reasoning).
- Assumptions and Bases: Information provided to support the viewpoint, appealing to logic or emotional-affective responses.
- Warranties: Arguments that directly support the thesis.
- Backups: Ideas that support the warranties (data, figures, studies).
- Conclusion: Restates the hypothesis or thesis, either explicitly or implicitly.
Types of Argumentation: Modes of Reasoning
Logical-Rational Arguments
- Reasoning by Analogy: Establishes a similarity between two concepts, people, or different things.
- Reasoning by Generalization: Creates a common viewpoint from specific instances.
- Reasoning by Signs or Symptoms: Uses signs or signals to establish the existence of a phenomenon.
- Reasoning by Cause: Establishes a causal connection between two facts that support the thesis.
- Using the Criterion of Authority: Refers to experts or dedicated individuals to support the thesis.
Emotional-Affective Arguments
- Appeals to Feelings: Addresses the audience’s feelings, especially doubts, fears, and desires, to provoke a sympathetic reaction or rejection.
- Arguments from Specific Examples: Uses familiar examples that directly affect the audience.
- Issuer Confidence: The confidence and credibility inspired by the issuer.
- Slogan: A constantly repeated phrase.
- Appeal to Fame: Uses the publicity or words of a valued character.
- Mass Appeal: Based on the idea that the majority is correct.
- Using Prejudice: Employs prejudice as an argument.
- Appeal to Tradition: The idea is based on established tradition.
Argument Classes
- Based on facts and observable, objective data.
- Based on the reasonable opinion of the arguer or general knowledge.
- Based on the authority of an expert.
General Purpose and Context
- Argumentative text aims to express opinions or refute them to persuade a recipient.
- Arguments are used in a wide variety of texts, especially scientific and philosophical texts, some advertising, debates, symposia, and round tables.
Arguments are used in various situations, including conversations, lectures, articles, dissertations, and reports. They also appear in discussions, deliberations, forums, panels, and round tables.
Arguments are present in the media through editorials, articles, reviews, critiques, advertisements, commercials, and monologues.