Argumentation and Cohesion in Text: A Comprehensive Guide
Argumentation
Techniques
- Illustration: Provides examples to support a point.
- Enumeration: Lists at least three elements.
- Comparison: Presents the differences between elements.
- Analogy: Highlights similarities between items.
- Cause-Consequence: Explains facts and their results, or vice versa.
- Rebuttal: Contradicts all or part of an argument.
- Concession: Agrees with part of an opposing argument.
- Rhetorical Question: Prompts reflection; the answer is implied.
- Quote of Authority: Supports arguments with expert opinions, statistics, or established wisdom.
- Explanation: Expands on an idea.
Cohesion
Strategies
- Synonymy: Using words with similar meanings.
- Replacement: Substituting one word or phrase for another.
- Antonymy: Using words with opposite meanings.
- Paraphrase: Rephrasing an idea in different words.
- Ellipsis: Omitting words or phrases that are understood.
- Example: Yesterday I was in the middle with Marina and Ana Inés. They were buying books for school.
- Hypernyms and Hyponyms: Using broader (hypernym) and narrower (hyponym) terms.
- Semantic Field: Using words related to a specific topic.
- Generalizing Words: Using words that encompass a broad category (e.g., thing, fact, subject matter).
- Pronominalization: Replacing words with pronouns.
Pronoun Classification
| Personal | I, me, you, he, she, it, we, they, us, them |
| Possessive | My, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, theirs |
| Demonstrative | This, that, these, those |
| Relative | That, which, who, whom, whose, where, when, how |
| Interrogative/Exclamatory | What, who, whom, whose, which, how, when, where |
| Indefinite | One, some, any, someone, something, anyone, anything, none, nobody, nothing, everyone, everything, all, both, few, many, several, each, either, neither |
Connectors
| Additive | And, also, too, besides, moreover, furthermore |
| Disjunctive | Or, either…or, neither…nor |
| Adversative | But, however, yet, nevertheless, nonetheless, still, although, though, even though, while, whereas, on the contrary, in contrast |
| Temporal | Before, after, when, while, as, since, until, as soon as, once |
| Spatial | Up, down, behind, in front, above, below, inside, outside, near, far, here, there, everywhere |
| Causal/Consecutive | Because, since, as, so, therefore, thus, consequently, hence, as a result |
| Order | First, second, third, finally, lastly, next, then, to begin with, in conclusion |
| Resumptive | In short, in summary, to sum up, in conclusion, briefly |
The Heroes of Old and Today
Heroes are protagonists of epic poems, narratives celebrating war and heroic deeds, often involving gods. Distinguished by exceptional qualities and actions, especially in war, they embody virtues like duty, strength, and skill.
The ancient Greek heroic model emphasized nobility and virtue. Even today, heroes journey, overcome challenges, and face dangers beyond ordinary capabilities.
Characteristics of a Hero: Positive Values
- Illustrious and famous for deeds and virtues.
- Performs heroic actions.
- Main character, especially in epic poems.
- High moral character.
- In mythology, often of divine and human parentage (e.g., Hercules, Achilles, Aeneas).
- Embodies virtues people aspire to.
Heroes Today
Modern heroes possess extraordinary abilities, aim for the common good, and protect others, often serving as role models.
Sentence Structure
Subject: Core, direct modifier, indirect modifier, apposition, comparative constructions (like, which).
Predicate: Verb, direct object (what? whom?), indirect object (to whom?), subjective predicative (be, seem, appear), agent complement (by whom?), circumstantial complements (mode, tool, company, cause, subject, location, affirmation, denial, quantity, time).