Anglo-Saxon Literature: Historical Sources and Poetic Forms
OE Literature: Sources and Poetic Traditions
OE Literature: Collection Differences
While collection differences work, it is difficult to know exactly what happened during this period. Following the Christianization of Britain, Britain received written records in Latin from the Roman Church. The written word was of crucial importance as services depended upon the reading of holy scriptures.
Historical Sources for the Anglo-Saxon Period
Bede’s Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum (731)
- A description of Britain composed by a monk.
- One of the main sources for understanding the Anglo-Saxon period.
- Describes the country before the arrival of the Saxons and discusses the movements of the native Celtic people.
- Composed in Latin for an international audience.
- Established many names, dates, and events repeated in later texts.
- Includes descriptions of Britain’s early races, warfare with Scots and Picts, and the Roman occupation.
The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
This is the most important historical source for the period between the departure of the Romans and the decades following the Norman Conquest. It was written in Old English (OE) across several manuscripts and often references the king.
OE Poetry: Performance and Structure
Old English poetry recounts historical events in a very specific manner. There are four most important manuscripts. This poetry was devised for public recitation and improvisation, so it was mostly performed or represented rather than written down. It recognizes the vital role of the professional poet or scop, who served as the embodiment of community history. The improviser was expected to perform heroic verses at celebratory gatherings. OE poetry used the pattern of alliteration (repetition of initial sounds) and was highly structured with strict metrical patterns. It featured elaborated, constructed sentences and interweaving words and phrases, using alliteration to unite them.
Heroic Poems
Heroic poems link our Anglo-Saxon ancestors to their origins in continental Europe, offering insight into the traditions and values the first settlers brought with them. Since the settlers had no written tradition, their history and legends were transmitted by word of mouth, comprising a Common Germanic inheritance. Passages point to the vital role of the lord-retainer relationship and the loyalty fundamental to it, alongside courage and the bonds of kinship—the Germanic heroic code.
The Battle of Maldon (991)
This poem celebrates a skirmish between the Essex nobleman Byrhtnoth and a raiding party of Vikings. The poet echoes the real events, perhaps as a monastic observer or a wounded survivor. Byrhtnoth is seen as a martyr for his liege-lord, and his soldiers honor their pledge by continuing to fight for him after his death. The Vikings are collectively portrayed negatively, and the poet criticizes soldiers who break the oath of comitatus by fleeing when their lord lies dead. The poem contrasts the whole Christian culture against the pagan enemy, features a realistic depiction of slaughter (the “beast of battle”), and provides an accurate geographical description. It strongly reinforces the importance of loyalty.
Beowulf
Beowulf is the oldest epic poem, composed between the 8th and 10th centuries, and it is untitled. The surviving manuscript is in the 10th-century West Saxon dialect, though the poem itself may originate from the Mercian dialect. A fire in 1731 destroyed a collection held by Sir Robert Bruce Cotton. This is a remarkable work that revives the strange, ancient Germanic world and shows how oral poetry was performed publicly by the scop (e.g., recounting Siegmund’s victory to celebrate Beowulf’s first victory over Grendel). The events involve two Scandinavian tribes (Danes and Geats), taking place in Zealand and southern Sweden. It is set in the 5th century, involving the historical raid of the Franks where Hygelac (Beowulf’s uncle/father figure) was killed. The Christian poet includes Hrothgar’s poet singing about creation, and Grendel is described as a descendant of Cain.
Values in Beowulf
- Values of Germanic heroes.
- The relationship between the thane (warrior) and his lord: mutual trust and respect. Lords are referred to with poetic epithets.
- If one of his men is murdered, vengeance is required, otherwise there is shame.
- Ironic treatment of tragic futility.
- Central to Beowulf’s three fights against supernatural foes: the first two are motivated by vengeance and the desire to show strength/gain glory; the third is motivated by the survival of his people.
- The poem possesses an elegiac mode and tone, charting Beowulf’s transformation from an ambitious hero to a revered dead king.
Elegies
Elegies were composed and recited to lament something that has been lost or gone. The tone expresses sadness, remorse, and sorrow. However, categorization is difficult because not all elegies share the same characteristics, though they all contain an element of sorrow. Themes include:
- The idea of individual loss.
- Sometimes the idea of estrangement or separation (though not always physical or exile).
- The idea of the transience of life and earthly glory: even a good soldier will eventually die.
Structure often involves a stanza, refrain, stanza, refrain pattern.
Religious Poetry
Religious poetry played a significant role in OE literature, reflecting the deep Christian values of the Anglo-Saxon period after conversion. Religious themes became central to much of their literary production. Many OE poems were adaptations of biblical stories or expressions of Christian faith, often blending earlier Germanic heroic traditions with Christian morality.
Middle English (ME) Transition
The Middle English period marks an age of transition and change, as English moved from synthetic Old English to analytic Middle English. This era saw a great amount of French vocabulary entering the language.