Anglo-Saxon History, Language, and Legacy in Britain
Notes on the Anglo-Saxons
The term Anglo-Saxon refers to the Germanic peoples who migrated to and settled in Great Britain from the 5th century AD, and to their culture and language that subsequently developed. Their arrival marked a significant turning point in British history, laying the foundations for much of what would follow.
Arrival and Settlement
Following the withdrawal of Roman legions from Britain in the early 5th century, the Romano-British population faced increasing pressure from Picts and Scots. According to tradition, a British king, Vortigern, invited Germanic mercenaries—primarily Angles, Saxons, and Jutes—to aid in their defense. However, these groups soon turned on their hosts, establishing their own kingdoms across the southern and eastern parts of Britain. The exact nature of this migration and settlement is debated by historians, with theories ranging from large-scale invasions to more gradual assimilation. Regardless, by the 7th century, several independent Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had emerged, including:
- Northumbria
- Mercia
- East Anglia
- Wessex
- Sussex
- Essex
- Kent
(These are often referred to as the Heptarchy, though that term is an oversimplification.)
Society and Culture
Anglo-Saxon society was hierarchical, with a king at the apex, followed by a noble class (thegns) who held land and provided military service. Below them were free peasants (ceorls), and at the bottom were slaves (theows). Loyalty to the lord was a crucial aspect of their social structure, often formalized through oaths and the giving of gifts. Their culture was deeply rooted in Germanic traditions, emphasizing bravery, honor, and prowess in battle. Feasting, boasting, and the exchange of elaborate gifts were important social rituals.
Language and Literature
The Anglo-Saxon language, also known as Old English, is the ancestor of modern English. It was a West Germanic language with its own distinct grammar and vocabulary. While initially an oral culture, the Anglo-Saxons developed a written tradition, using the runic alphabet (futhorc) and later adopting the Latin alphabet following their conversion to Christianity. Anglo-Saxon literature is rich and diverse, encompassing epic poems like Beowulf, religious prose, chronicles (such as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle), riddles, and charms. This literature provides invaluable insights into their beliefs, values, and daily lives.
Religion and Conversion
The Anglo-Saxons initially practiced a polytheistic religion with gods like Woden (Odin), Thunor (Thor), and Tiw (Tyr). However, from the late 6th century onwards, Christianity gradually spread through missionary efforts, most notably those led by St. Augustine. The conversion process was complex and often involved a blending of pagan and Christian beliefs. The Church played an increasingly important role in Anglo-Saxon society, influencing law, education, and the arts. Monasteries became centers of learning and preserved much of the written record from this period.
Political Development and Unification
The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were often engaged in conflict with each other, vying for power and territory. Over time, some kingdoms rose to prominence, such as Northumbria in the early period and later Mercia. However, the arrival of the Vikings in the late 8th century posed a new and significant threat. The Viking invasions led to widespread destruction and the establishment of Viking settlements in England (the Danelaw). It was under the leadership of Alfred the Great, King of Wessex in the late 9th century, that a significant resistance was mounted against the Vikings. Alfred not only defended his kingdom but also implemented legal and administrative reforms, promoted literacy, and laid the groundwork for the eventual unification of England under a single Anglo-Saxon monarchy in the 10th century.
Legacy
The Anglo-Saxon period left an indelible mark on the history and culture of England. Their language forms the basis of modern English, and many place names in Britain have Anglo-Saxon origins. Their legal and administrative systems, concepts of kingship, and literary traditions have had a lasting influence. While the Anglo-Saxon era formally ended with the Norman Conquest of 1066, their contributions continue to shape the identity and heritage of England.