Ancient Philosophies: Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Medieval Ethics
Ancient Philosophies: Hellenistic Period
Stoicism
Founded by Zeno of Citium (336-263 BC). Stoicism posits that the world is governed by a universal reason, leading all to a predetermined end. Therefore, the wise person accepts fate, understanding its inevitability. Accepting what happens is crucial because the world operates under this universal reason.
The Stoic ideal of wisdom preaches living according to nature, which means living according to reason. Nature is governed by a universal reason. This requires mastering desires and passions (apathy) and achieving ataraxia, or tranquility of mind.
Epicureanism
Founded by Epicurus of Samos (341-270 BC). Epicureanism places happiness in pleasure (Hedonism). However, it advocates moderation, understanding that true pleasure comes from preventing excessive enjoyment. A happy life includes both material and spiritual pleasures, with the latter being superior. It is preferable to forgo a momentary pleasure if it leads to greater long-term misfortune. This philosophy is materialistic, contrasting with Platonic and Christian ideals.
Ethics in the Middle Ages: St. Thomas Aquinas
Foundation of Ethics
The ultimate foundation of human morality, according to St. Thomas Aquinas, is God.
God is the foundation of morality, made visible through law. There are three types of laws:
Eternal Law
Eternal law is the order and laws that God established in the world as its creator. By creating, God imposed laws based on will and goodness. God is the king and ruler of the universe.
We know this through divine revelation, such as the scriptures, Jesus Christ, or the Church.
Natural Law
Natural law is the law that God inscribed in our nature when creating us. We can discover it within ourselves, through our reason. It has some basic tenets:
- As a substance: To preserve one’s being (right to life).
- As an animal: To perpetuate the species.
- As a rational being: To know God and the truth.
- As a social being: To live with other human beings (respect for others).
Natural law compels us to live in society. Life is only possible with standards, human laws that prevent messy anarchy where morals might be corrupted.
Positive Law
Positive laws are laws made by humans. They cannot contradict natural law. However, this is an ideal, as laws throughout history have often violated moral standards, such as the Nazi Holocaust.
The Modern Age: Ethical Materials and Formal – Kant
Kant divides ethics into material and formal ethics:
- Material Ethics: Uses hypothetical imperatives, which claim an action is necessary to achieve an end (e.g., studying for approval).
- Formal Ethics: Uses categorical imperatives, which are not subject to any condition and are valid a priori and of themselves. They represent an action as objectively necessary in itself, without regard to any goal or outcome (e.g., studying because it is one’s duty).
Act so that you want the maxim of your behavior to become universal law.
Emotivism and Moral Philosophy: Hume
Emotivism
Moral evaluation results from the feeling of approval or disapproval, pleasure or displeasure, that a certain event causes us. The feeling of approval is pleasant, and disapproval is unpleasant. Our consideration of good or evil comes from feeling, not reason. Reason does not guide our morality; passions do, and passions guide reason.
Ethical Relativism?
Hume’s theory is not necessarily ethically relativistic because he argues that all humans share a common human nature, which means they generally have the same moral judgments, that is, the same feelings. Therefore, its validity depends on the opinion of the generality of humans.