Ancient Iberian Peninsula: Peoples, Empires, and Transformations
Carthage and the Punic Wars
Carthage, a Phoenician colony founded around 820 BC in present-day Tunisia, gradually imposed its rule over the ancient Phoenician colonies of the western Mediterranean. Its troubled history led to conflict with Rome, with whom Carthage fought three major wars:
- First Punic War (264-241 BC)
- Second Punic War (218-201 BC)
- Third Punic War (149-146 BC), which led to Carthage’s destruction.
Roman Hispania: Conquest and Administration
Hispania was the name the Romans gave to the peninsula after defeating the Carthaginians in 197 BC. The territory was initially divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. Later, Augustus reorganized it into three provinces: Tarraconensis, Baetica, and Lusitania.
The Romanization Process
Romanization was the process of adaptation of peoples conquered by the Romans to the social, economic, political, and cultural structures of the Empire. Key aspects of Romanization included linguistic unification, urban development, the influence of the Roman army, and the establishment of a vast communications network. The intensity of this process was significantly lower in the northern regions. Under Roman rule, Hispania became a vital area for raw material extraction and agricultural production.
The Visigothic Kingdom in Hispania
The Visigoths, a Germanic people within the Roman Empire, arrived in the peninsula to collaborate with the Roman army, helping to expel other ‘barbarian’ peoples. When the last Western Roman Emperor was deposed by the Heruli in 476 AD, the Visigoths established the political center of their monarchy in the city of Toulouse. From a socioeconomic perspective, it was primarily an agricultural kingdom. The internal struggle between the last Visigothic king, Roderic, and the sons of Witiza ultimately facilitated the Muslim invasion in 711 AD (Battle of Guadalete).
Pre-Roman Peoples of the Iberian Peninsula
The earliest inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula are known as the pre-Roman peoples: Tartessians, Iberians, and Celtiberians.
Tartessos: A Mysterious Civilization
Tartessos was a brilliant civilization that flourished in southwestern Spain during the first half of the first millennium BC. It remains largely shrouded in mystery, though Greek and biblical texts describe a rich and powerful civilization. It engaged in substantial trade, which greatly benefited its increasingly powerful aristocracy. Tartessos collapsed in the mid-first millennium BC.
Iberians: Mediterranean Influence and Refined Art
In the southern and Mediterranean regions, diverse peoples with common cultural features settled. Contact with Mediterranean colonizers spurred their cultural development. They practiced agriculture and livestock farming, alongside trade and mining. Their small towns were easily defensible, and their society was highly hierarchical. They produced a highly refined art, best exemplified by the Lady of Elche.
Celtiberians: Celtic Heritage in the North and West
The peoples of the north and west of the peninsula were only weakly influenced by Mediterranean settlements. Celtic presence was significant, hence the name Celtiberians. These groups included the Gallaecians, Asturians, Cantabrians, and Basques, among others. They were less developed peoples, with an economy based on farming, fishing, and gathering. Archaeological highlights include the castros (hillforts), villages of circular houses built by the Gallaecians.
Mediterranean Colonization of the Iberian Peninsula
In the first millennium BC, the Iberian Mediterranean coast witnessed waves of colonization by more culturally advanced Mediterranean peoples. Phoenicians, Greeks, and Carthaginians arrived in this order along the Mediterranean coast. Their primary purpose was economic: to seek metals and other valuable products.
Phoenician Settlements and Innovations
The Phoenicians arrived in the 9th century BC. They founded several colonies, notably Gades (modern Cádiz). Gades became the main center for Phoenician trade with the Tartessian territory. They introduced innovations such as the potter’s wheel and the alphabet.
Greek Colonies and Agricultural Contributions
The Greeks, from their colony of Massilia (modern Marseille), founded several colonies on the Mediterranean coast starting in the 6th century BC. Notable colonies include Rhode (modern Roses) and Emporion (modern Empúries). They introduced new crops such as olives and esparto grass.
Carthaginian Expansion and Trade
The Carthaginians, originating from Carthage (a Phoenician colony in modern Tunisia), were very active and established colonies like Ebusus (Ibiza) and Carthago Nova (Cartagena). They produced pottery, funerary objects, and other goods.