Ancient Egypt: Society, Culture, and the Nile’s Influence
The Nile River Valley in northeastern Africa saw the development of Egyptian civilization thousands of years ago. The ancient Egyptians built surprising pyramids and temples, left thousands of written documents, and lived in cities located along the river. Some of these constructions and documents have endured the course of time, allowing us to know the history of Egypt. Their art was created to last forever. Its role was to venerate the gods, the pharaoh, and the dead to ensure the best life in the hereafter.
The Nile: Life in the Desert
The river Nile runs through Egypt from north to south. On its banks lies a fertile strip of land that enabled the development of life in the region. The life of the ancient Egyptians depended on the river since their cities and crops were located on its banks.
How Did This Fertile Strip Form?
When the Nile flooded, the water flooded the fields, depositing silt, which fertilized the land and eventually became a haven. Then, as the river receded, the land turned into planting areas. The people used the river for flood drainage canals and built dams to extend the zone of fertile land.
The Natural Boundaries
Seas and deserts were the borders of Egypt.
- To the west was the Libyan Desert, inhabited by pastoralists who took advantage of the oases in the area. There was also the Fayum, a zone in which an arm of the Nile appeared. This area was rich in agricultural activity.
- To the east were the Eastern Desert, the Red Sea, and the Sinai Peninsula, a very important area to master because it allowed for control of trade routes and security against foreign attacks.
Upper Egypt, Lower Egypt
Egypt was divided into two zones following the flow direction of the Nile River:
- Lower Egypt extended from the present city of Cairo to the mouth of the river in the delta area. Its wetlands prevented agricultural development but had good pasture for livestock, and the river produced papyrus.
- Upper Egypt was a wide valley where agriculture was prominent, and the majority of the population lived in cities.
“Two Lands” Joining and a Long History
Around 3000 BC, the areas of Upper and Lower Egypt (“two lands”) joined and created a history divided into periods: three centralized or imperial periods, separated by two intermediate periods.
During the centralized periods, Egypt was a unified government, and great power belonged to the pharaoh, or king. In contrast, the intermediate periods were characterized by foreign invasion, social turmoil, and economic hardship.
- Old Kingdom: Monuments were built, such as the famous pyramids.
- Middle Kingdom: Began when the princes of Thebes restored the unity of the country, which had been lost during the First Intermediate Period.
- New Kingdom: The time when Egypt reached its maximum extension.
This empire ended around 1085 BC. After that, Egypt was dominated by several peoples, such as the Assyrians, Persians, and Greeks. Finally, in the first century BC, it was dominated by the Romans.
The Pharaoh and the Egyptian Government
In Egypt, the power to rule was inherited from father to son, between siblings, or relatives. Thus, royal families or dynasties were formed that ruled the country, sometimes for centuries and sometimes for only a few years. The pharaoh was considered a living god by the Egyptians; he was the foremost authority and guaranteed the union of the “two lands”. The pharaoh wore a double crown: the white crown of Upper Egypt and the red crown of Lower Egypt. The pharaoh might marry several wives, but the most important marriage was with a female family member, usually a sister.
Officials
Officials were civilians, soldiers, and priests. The most important official was the vizier, who controlled the administration and received commands from the pharaoh. Then there were the nomarchs, who monitored the nomes, regional administrative units similar to provinces. There were also many officials who carried out various activities. Among these were the scribes, who were the people who could write. This job was very important because hieroglyphs were very difficult to understand.
The Pharaoh and the Control of the Economy
The pharaoh’s major concern was to obtain resources to support his family and non-producing staff. He also needed resources for public works and the maintenance of the army and fleet to conquer other lands. These resources were obtained from the land, which was worked by peasants. All land belonged to the pharaoh, who gave part to his family, another to the temples, and another to officials. He also drew resources from the people, who paid taxes, and conquered areas had to pay tribute to the pharaoh.
Trade and Foreign Intercourse
Some products were traded with other parts of Egypt. Trade was also controlled by the pharaoh. Between Egypt and the Sinai settlers, with whom they had agreements, the Egyptians exploited the turquoise mines.
Egyptian Religion
The Egyptians were polytheistic because they believed that many gods controlled the world and life. They worshiped them in different forms: animals, beings with human bodies and animal heads, and human form. The pharaoh was related to the falcon-headed god Horus. The Egyptians believed that gods lived in the temples.
Life After Death
The Egyptians believed that life on Earth was a short period compared to the infinite life in the “beyond”. But to continue with life in the beyond, the person had to go through a series of tests before the gods in which he had to establish that he had behaved rightly and properly in his life. He also had to preserve the body from destruction, so it was embalmed and deposited in tombs along with personal items and food for eternal life.