Ancient Cultures: The Vikings and Celts of Europe
The Vikings: Norse Seafarers and Warriors (793–1066)
The Vikings were Norse people who originated from Scandinavia (modern-day Denmark, Norway, and Sweden). They were renowned seafarers and warriors whose influence spanned from the 8th to the 14th centuries.
Major Viking Tribes
The three most important tribes were:
- Danes: Known primarily for their raids and extensive settlements in the Danelaw region of England.
- Norwegians: Focused on exploration, raiding, and settling in the British Isles and Iceland.
- Swedish: Primarily focused on trade and exploration in the Baltic region and Eastern Europe.
Viking Religion and Cosmology
The Viking religion was a polytheistic pagan faith that included beliefs about gods, goddesses, various realms, and the creation of the world. Their deities were divided into two main groups:
- Aesir: Gods of war, often associated with humans (e.g., Odin, Thor). Their home realm is Asgard.
- Vanir: Gods of nature, often associated with elves and fertility. Their home realm is Vanaheim.
Key Events of the Viking Age (793–1066)
- 793
- The Viking Age began with the infamous raid on Lindisfarne monastery in England, marking the start of major Viking invasions.
- 800s
- Vikings established widespread settlements across the British Isles, including Ireland, England, and Scotland.
- 865
- The Great Heathen Army (a large Viking army) invaded England, successfully capturing key cities like York.
- 911
- Viking leader Rollo compelled King Charles the Simple to cede territory, establishing the Duchy of Normandy in France.
- 1066
- Harald Hardrada’s invasion of England was defeated at the Battle of Stamford Bridge, traditionally marking the end of the Viking Age in England.
Viking Daily Life, Economy, and Motivation
Vikings typically lived in settlements featuring longhouses, constructed from wood or stone, usually surrounded by farmland and livestock. Their settlements were strategically located near waterways to facilitate travel and trade.
They were highly skilled traders, exchanging goods such as furs, wool, and amber for valuable commodities like silver and gold. Their extensive trade networks reached as far as the Middle East, North Africa, and the British Isles.
The Viking economy relied heavily on agriculture, hunting, fishing, and craftsmanship. Reasons for raiding and invasion included seeking wealth, resources, and power, as well as the desire for adventure. Furthermore, overpopulation and limited arable land in Scandinavia often pushed them to seek new settlements and farming opportunities abroad.
Hygiene and Personal Care
Viking hygiene was surprisingly advanced for the era. They bathed at least once a week and used soap to clean themselves. Archaeological finds confirm they possessed personal grooming tools, including tweezers, razors, and combs.
Viking Social Hierarchy
- King (Konungr)
- The highest authority and ruler.
- Jarls
- The aristocracy, possessing significant power and wealth.
- Karls
- Free men who owned land and held full legal rights.
- Thralls
- Slaves who performed labor on farms and in homes.
Notable Viking Rulers
- Cnut the Great (1016–1035): Ruled England, Denmark, and Norway, establishing the powerful North Sea Empire.
- Harold Harefoot (1035–1040): Son of Cnut.
- Harthacnut (1040–1042): Son of Cnut.
The Celts: Warrior Culture and Tribal Societies
The Celts (known historically as the Keltoi) were a collection of independent tribes sharing a common language (Proto-Celtic), religion, and traditions. They maintained a strong presence across Central Europe, dating back to at least 335 BCE.
Celtic Culture and Social Structure
The Celts were renowned for their fierce warrior culture and sophisticated artistic craftsmanship, particularly in metalwork and intricate designs in wood. Their culture was heavily based on storytelling, relying on oral tradition and memory to transmit history and knowledge.
The Celtic social structure placed a King at the top, followed by the influential priests known as Druids. Each tribe maintained its own specific rules and customs.
Principal Celtic Tribes of the British Isles
- The Iceni: Led by Queen Boudica, they famously fought against the Romans in 60–61 CE.
- The Catuvellauni: A dominant tribe in the southeast of Britain, with Togodumnus noted as a famous leader.
- The Atrebates: Known as “the settlers,” they established communities in both Britain and Belgium. Their power derived from a strong dynastic family and control over a large territory.
- The Picts: Tribes inhabiting northern and eastern Scotland.
- The Scots: Originating from Ireland, they later migrated to Scotland.
Celtic Economy and Daily Life
While fundamentally a warrior-based society, the Celts were also skilled collectors, hunters, and farmers. They lived in small, interconnected communities where trade was common.
Their economy centered on agriculture, trade, and craftsmanship. Key livestock included cattle and sheep, alongside crops like wheat and barley. Within tribes, they exchanged food. While early Celts relied on barter, they later developed and minted their own coins for exchange.
Celtic Religion and the Druids
Celtic religion and beliefs were deeply connected to nature. Ceremonies were often held in sacred forests and near vital water sources. They practiced a polytheistic faith, believing in numerous gods, goddesses, and deities.
The Druids served as the Celts’ priests, but their roles extended far beyond religious duties. They were also healers, judges, scholars, scientists, and peacemakers. Crucially, Druids were responsible for preserving the community’s history through oral tradition.
Warfare and Military Structure
The Celtic military structure relied heavily on tribal warriors, who were renowned as fierce and skilled fighters, often serving as mercenaries. Their warfare style emphasized bravery and mobility.
Key weaponry included swords, spears, shields, and helmets. They were also notable for their use of chariots on the battlefield.
Celtic warriors highly valued bravery and personal honor. Their duties included protecting their families, their kin, and their land. Due to their belief in reincarnation, they were often fearless in battle, viewing death not as an end but as a transition.