Ancient Civilizations: Origins, Empires, and Cultural Legacies
Where Did the Earliest Civilizations Appear?
The first civilizations, known as river civilizations, appeared in Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China.
- Mesopotamia: The Tigris and Euphrates rivers
- Egypt: The Nile River
- India: The Indus River
- China: The Huang He (Yellow) and Yangtze (Blue) rivers
Writing was first used in Mesopotamia in about 3500 BC.
City-States and Empires
Mesopotamia
City-states in Mesopotamia were ruled by kings.
- Sumer: In 3000 BC, the Sumerians lived in independent city-states.
- Akkadian Empire: In 2300 BC, King Sargon conquered the Sumerians.
- Babylonian Empire: After 1800 BC, the rulers of the city-states of Babylon established the first Babylonian Empire.
- Assyrian Empire: After 1350 BC, Assyrians created a series of empires; in the seventh century, the Assyrian Empire stretched from the Mediterranean to the Persian Gulf.
- Neo-Babylonian Empire: In the late seventh century, a new Babylonian Empire was founded. Nebuchadnezzar II was its most famous ruler.
Egypt
The social hierarchy in ancient Egypt was as follows:
- Pharaoh
- Priests, noblemen, civil servants
- Soldiers
- Scribes
- Merchants
- Craftsmen
- Servants and peasants
- Slaves
Religion in Mesopotamia
The Mesopotamians were polytheistic: they believed in many gods. Anu was the god of heaven, Enil the god of wind, and Ishtar the goddess of war and love. Temples were the places where the gods lived on Earth.
Architecture
The Mesopotamians built magnificent palaces, like Dur-Sharrukin. They invented the arch and the vault. Mud bricks and stone were used for construction.
Sculpture
They made stone statues of kings, gods, and animals. They also depicted imaginary creatures, like bulls with human heads. Reliefs showed political and religious scenes.
The Importance of the River Nile
Ancient Egypt is one of the most important civilizations in human history. It developed along the River Nile in north-east Africa more than 5,000 years ago. Most Egyptians lived near the River Nile, which flows from south to north. They called the river valley the ‘black land’ because it was covered by dark fertile mud from the river. The dry deserts were called the ‘red lands’.
The River Nile was vital for Egyptian civilization. It provided water for human needs and agriculture. It was also the main route of communications.
The History of Egypt
In the fourth millennium BC, independent kingdoms appeared in Lower Egypt (near the Nile delta) and Upper Egypt (further south). In 3100 BC, King Menes united these kingdoms and became the first pharaoh, or ruler, of Egypt.
The main periods of ancient Egyptian history were:
- The Old Kingdom (3100-2050 BC): The Egyptian state was created, and the pharaoh became a powerful, divine figure. The pharaohs Khufu, Khafra, and Menkaura built huge pyramids in Giza. The capital was at Memphis.
- The Middle Kingdom (2050-1580 BC): The power of the pharaohs increased. New territories were conquered in the south. The capital was moved to Thebes.
- The New Kingdom (1580-31 BC): Thutmose I, Amenhotep III, Akhenaten, and Ramesses II were famous pharaohs. Large palaces and temples were built. Libya and Syria were conquered.
From 1100 BC, there were several foreign invasions. Egypt was conquered by the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans.
The Pharaoh
Ancient Egypt was ruled by a monarch called a pharaoh who had absolute power. The pharaoh governed the country, decreed laws, owned much of the land, and led the army. The Egyptians believed that the pharaohs were gods. They thought that they had magical powers and controlled how the water level of the Nile rose and fell. Pharaohs were succeeded by their children, so dynasties were established.
The Egyptian State
The following groups helped to run the Egyptian state:
- Civil servants: Organized the vast territories of the empire
- Noblemen: Received land and treasures from the pharaoh. They often belonged to the pharaoh’s family and were the governors of the provinces.
- Priests: Directed religious rituals in the temples. They also owned land. Peasants worked for them and gave them agricultural products as taxes.
- Scribes: Kept official records and counted the goods in the royal warehouses. They had a very important role because they knew how to read, write, and count.
- Soldiers: Protected the frontiers. In return, they received land, gold, and slaves from the pharaoh.
What Was Society Like?
- Peasants: Most people were poor peasants who lived in mud brick houses along the Nile. They worked on the lands belonging to the pharaoh, the priests, or the noblemen. When the land was flooded, they helped to build the pharaoh’s monuments.
- Craftsmen: Made sculptures, pottery, textiles, and papyrus (a kind of paper).
- Merchants: Exchanged products because they didn’t have money. They brought wood, minerals, and perfumes from other regions.
- Servants: Were free people who worked for a salary.
- Slaves: Were often prisoners of war and had no rights. They worked in domestic service, the mines, and building work.
The Role of Women
Egyptian women had some rights and enjoyed more freedom than in most early civilizations. For example, they could inherit and own property and get divorced. Most Egyptian women did housework or worked as peasants or servants. It was unusual for women to hold official posts. However, a few women, like Hatshepsut and Cleopatra, were female pharaohs.