Ancient Civilizations: Mesopotamia, Egypt, Greece, and Rome
The First Civilizations: Mesopotamia and Egypt
Mesopotamia, Land Between Two Rivers
Mesopotamia was one of the earliest civilizations that arose in the plains between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates. Its inhabitants created new offices and city-states.
The First City-States
To the south of Mesopotamia, in the territory of Sumer, the first cities arose (Ur, Uruk), with a population of between 10,000 and 50,000. The workshops of artisans gathered around the temple, or ziggurat, dedicated to the god who protected the city.
Social and Economic Organization
In the cities, farmers and pastoralists lived, farming or herding. Prosperity caused a portion of the population to engage in other tasks and to exchange products on the market. The priests lived in the temple, controlled crops and trade, imposed taxes, and were helped by officials to manage the city.
Mesopotamian Culture
The Birth of Writing
Writing is any system that allows you to reproduce, with graphic signs, the sounds of language. The earliest forms of writing emerged from the need to take notes of economic matters.
Art in Mesopotamia
Mesopotamian sculpture was abundant, called praying men and women. To decorate the walls and gates of temples and palaces, reliefs with figures of kings were used.
Mesopotamian Architecture
Temples and palaces were awesome, constructed using mud. The roofs offer a number of properties that reached their full constructive development.
Egypt, Land Between the Rivers
Egypt has two advantages: the desert isolates it from its enemies, and the Nile has a flood regime. From early June through September, the river rises and falls until it reaches the sea, flooding the land to its banks. In September, the withdrawal of the waters begins, leaving black and fine silt to fertilize all fields.
Egyptian Society
The Power of the Pharaoh
The organization of the Egyptian state was dominated by a king, the Pharaoh, who had absolute power, was the owner of all land, was treated like a god, and also served as law and justice. To govern such a vast territory, the Pharaoh needed faithful and effective servants. The kingdom was controlled by governors, who in turn controlled numerous officials (scribes).
The Privileged
Senior officials such as governors, military chiefs, and priests were the most important social class of ancient Egypt, a real nobility. They possessed large territories and enormous wealth, although the king was the owner. Priests ran religious rites and practiced science (astronomy, mathematics).
The Egyptian People
- Peasants were to deliver some of the products obtained to Pharaoh’s officials.
- Merchants and craftsmen practiced the most popular crafts, working with flax, stone, metals, jewelry, serum, etc.
The Gods and Temples of Egypt
The gods lived in the temples. The priests were responsible for their care, along with the Pharaoh and his associates.
Hellas: Ancient Greece
The existence of numerous islands implied that Greek civilization did not have a state like modern Greece. Every valley and every island were an independent state, called a polis.
The First Poleis
The government was in the hands of a privileged group who called themselves the “Best” (aristoi in Greek). This is why we say it was an aristocratic government.
Causes of Greek Expansion:
- Excessive population increase in relation to livelihoods.
- Land scarcity (in the hands of very rich owners).
- Social struggles between rich landowners and poor peasants.
The Greeks in Iberia occupied southern Spain (Kingdom of Tartessos) and exported metals (copper, silver, gold, tin). Greek expansion was slowed due to rivalry with Phoenician and Carthaginian traders, with whom the Greeks fought for commercial domain of the area. Its population consisted mostly of peasants, who specialized in two crops: grapes and olives, with which they produced wine and oil.
Economic Transformations
In maritime cities such as Athens, trade settlements developed, leading to the growth of a major cottage industry. Artisans worked in small workshops, helped by slaves, and produced pottery, textiles, weapons, jewelry, etc.
Apogee and Fall of Athens
After the assassination of Philip, his son, Alexander, came to power. Athens enjoyed a very bright economic and artistic period. But this same wealth was in conflict with the interests of other cities such as Corinth and Sparta, eventually provoking a fight against Athens. The Peloponnesian Wars were terrible because they ruined Athens, which was defeated, and in general, all Greek poleis. Pericles was the most influential man in Athens, a defender of democracy, and he rebuilt it.
Athenian Democracy
Merchants and artisans, wishing to intervene in the government to defend their interests, clashed with the aristocracy. Thus began a reform process that ended with the onset of democracy.
- Metics were foreigners who were engaged in commerce and crafts. They paid taxes.
- Slaves, prisoners of war, toiled in the mines.
Limited Democracy
Not all Athenian citizens had the right to vote, and many did not participate in political tasks.
Hellenistic Greece
Macedonia, in northern Greece, conquered and adopted the Greek poleis and their culture.
Empire of Alexander the Great
Alexander, at 20 years old, began conquering the Persian Empire, enemies of the Greeks. His desire was to end the Persian threat, seize their wealth, and increase trade to the east. He achieved a vast empire but died at age 33.
Hellenistic Kingdoms
After the death of Alexander, his generals founded kingdoms: Egypt, Mesopotamia and Syria, and Macedonia, whose wealth attracted many Greeks.
The Legacy of the Greeks
The Gods of Olympus
Their religion was polytheistic; they admitted many gods, and anthropomorphic, giving them human strength. Mythology states they lived on Olympus, and the most important was Zeus. There were also many other gods. Heroes were sons of a god and a mortal. Myth was a poetic and symbolic explanation of the world. All this is discussed in mythology.
A Variety of Worship
There were a variety of cults.
Architecture
The temple was the place of the gods, and the theater was where public performances were represented.
Elements of Greek Architecture
- The base, on which the pillars rest.
- The columns, consisting of base, shaft, and capital.
- The entablature, consisting of architrave, frieze, and pediment.
- Cover, with a triangular shape.
The Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis was the sacred hill of Athens, meaning “high place.” They built high walls, and it became a center. Highlights include the sculptor Phidias and architect Ictinus. The Parthenon is Doric and dedicated to the goddess Athena. Another temple to the left of the Parthenon is the Erechtheion, in Ionic style, with columns set up by girls (caryatids).
Daily Life in Athens
There were no sewers or waste collection systems. Urban hygiene was poor, so epidemics tended to be frequent. Households with only one floor were built of lightweight materials that thieves could easily steal from. They had a patio or porch. Furniture was sparse, and there was a department for women. Boys went to school and the gym. At 18, they became ephebes, and after two years of military service, they were recognized as citizens. Wives and daughters remained at home, spinning and directing the slaves.
Food and Clothing
Food was simple: semolina crackers or cereal, olives, figs, fish, a little cheese, and very little meat. They ate with their fingers, drinking water, water with honey, or wine mixed with water. Banquets were a distraction, with musicians and dancers. Clothing consisted of two special pieces: chiton and himation. They wore sandals.
Sculpture and Ceramics
The quest for ideal beauty and movement in sculpture found the ideal body proportions. We can distinguish three major stages:
- Archaic period.
- Classical period, which achieved proportions of the human body with harmony and movement. Highlights include the Discobolus.
- Hellenistic period, which was more dramatic, capturing feelings, such as in the Victory of Samothrace.
Roman Empire
Origins of Rome
The Roman Empire was formed by Latins to stop the pressure of the Etruscans and dominate the region. Rome was founded around the year 753 BC.
Monarchy
Rome had seven kings, four Hispanic and three Etruscan. Influenced by the Etruscans, bridges were built.
Patricians and Plebeians
- Patricians: Direct descendants of the founders of Rome, they were rich and powerful families.
- Plebeians: They were foreigners or farmers.
Republican Rome
Res publica means “public affairs” in Latin. To put institutions in place, power was divided into three:
- Magistrates: Elected annually, including two consuls who presided over the Senate and the army.
- Elections, where magistrates were elected, proposed legislation, and decided on war.
- The Senate, composed of 300 former consuls, was the center of political life.
Slaves
They were so numerous they had no rights, and their masters could sell them, take their lives, or give them freedom.
Freedmen
Former slaves who had been freed.
Conquest of the Mediterranean
The Expansion of Rome
Between 500 and 250 BC, Rome’s interests clashed with those of Carthage, a major maritime power and controller of Mediterranean trade. The Punic Wars began, with the triumph of Rome. The conquests brought great wealth to Rome but gave rise to enormous social inequalities. This led to conflict. Julius Caesar was proclaimed dictator for life in the year 48 BC.
The Empire
The Pax Romana and the Crisis
After the death of Julius Caesar, his adopted son, Octavian, became the most powerful man in Rome. From the third century, Emperor Caracalla ceased conquests, and the boundaries became unsafe due to the continuing pressures of the barbarian peoples. Theodosius divided the empire between Arcadius and Honorius. In addition to disorders, the emperors lost their political and military authority. Economic problems and the lack of slaves caused a decline in agricultural production, and the empire became poorer.
Barbarian Invasions
In the early 5th century, Germanic tribes penetrated the Roman Empire, led by the Huns, a village from the Asian steppes. The invaders (Suebi, Vandals, Alans, Ostrogoths, and Visigoths) were installed in the empire and founded independent kingdoms. Odoacer deposed Romulus Augustulus, a 10-year-old boy who was the last Roman emperor of the West.
The Visigoths
In the 5th century, they settled in southern Gaul and signed a pact with the Romans, allying with the emperor to fight against other peoples. In 411, they invaded Spain.
The Roman World
Cities, the Center of the Empire
Rome was an empire of cities, which were the administrative, legal, political, and economic centers. All had a wall surrounding them and were organized around two main roads. In the center were public buildings (baths, circuses, theaters, temples) dedicated to the leisure of citizens. All cities had good drainage systems, abundant fountains, and cobblestone streets.
Crafts
Crafts had a great development. There were large numbers of merchants and artisans, who formed a social group.
The Rural World and Trade
Farms
The Romans introduced the plow and the irrigation system. They taught how to cultivate products such as cereals, vines, and olives. There were enormous estates, which included huge country houses (villas) with lots of dependencies (stables, barns, forge shops, carpentry workshops, oil presses, grain mills).
Thriving Trade
They imported African ivory and gold. The Romans built magnificent roads (80,000 miles), although most transactions were made by sea.
The Religion of the Romans: Christianity
Roman Gods
Rome adopted Greek mythology, changing the names of some of their gods. All free people had to be faithful to Rome and testify to the emperor. They also worshiped the gods of the house and honored the spirits of the past.
Emergence of Christianity
In the 1st century BC, Palestine was conquered by the Romans. It was inhabited by Jews, who practiced a monotheistic religion. They believed in one God, Yahweh, and awaited the arrival of a messiah. It was in Palestine where Christianity was born, a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of Jesus. He preached a new religion, recommended loving God and neighbor, forgiving offenses, and stated that any sin could be forgiven with repentance and that all men could gain eternal life. Jewish leaders considered him an impostor and pressured Pontius Pilate to condemn Jesus to death.
The Spread of Christianity
Paul of Tarsus spread Christianity among non-Jews. In the fourth century, Emperor Constantine allowed Christians to practice their religion, and Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the empire. The church increased its power.
Planning and Roman Art
Public works were emphasized.
Engineers and Constructors
Roman art is largely limited to Greek art. They copied many of its elements (columns, architectural orders), not with as much beauty, but more useful and practical. They mixed Greek and Etruscan elements (the arch and vault). They were great engineers, as evidenced by their calculations and public works. Worth mentioning are roads (causeways) complete with bridges and aqueducts to supply water to cities. They dominated sculpture, especially the portrait.