Ancient Civilizations: From Mesopotamia to the Bronze Age
Ancient Civilizations: A Historical Journey
The first civilizations emerged in Africa, specifically in Egypt. The Near East, now politically divided into regions like Lebanon, Israel, and the United Arab Emirates, also played a crucial role. Key requirements for establishing a state included suitable land and climate, enabling food surpluses and supporting large populations. This led to the development of social groups with productive roles, such as farmers, and non-productive roles, such as warriors and priests. While the Near East flourished, Europe was still in the Iron Age, making the Near East the primary focus of early development.
Mesopotamia: The Cradle of Civilization
In Mesopotamia, city-states thrived between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Each city had a patron god and a leader with significant powers. The Sumerians inhabited these geographically diverse cities, with Assur, Ur, and Uruk being the most prominent. These cities were oases, sustained by irrigated lands.
Sumerian Society
Mesopotamia was home to two distinct cultures: Akkad in the south and Sumer in the north. Sumerian civilization evolved through three phases: Uruk, Jemdet-Nasr, and Protodynastic. Uruk saw urbanization, technological advancements (potter’s wheel, metallurgy), writing, complex buildings, and population growth. By the Protodynastic period (around 2500 BC), 80% of the population lived in cities, and a complex urban system was established. Conflicts, such as the Umma vs. Lagash war, were a significant aspect of Sumerian society. Trade routes, territorial disputes, and religious conflicts fueled these wars. King Lugalzagesi was a notable figure.
Akkadian Society
Sargon I established a centralized Akkadian empire, which was later expanded by Naram-Sin. Akkad became the capital, and the king’s status was elevated to “King of the Four Regions.”
Egypt During the Old Kingdom
During the Old Kingdom, the king was considered a living god, and power was intertwined with religious beliefs. The administration was unified and centralized, with provincial divisions into districts or nomes. Upper Egypt had 22 nomes, while Lower Egypt had 16. Society was structured with the king and his family at the top, followed by the nobility and upper priesthood, and then farmers and public works laborers. Egypt traded with Nubia for human resources, stone, minerals, and exotic materials. They also traded with Sinai for copper and with the Levant for wood.
First Empires in the Near East
The Paleo-Babylonian empire, located in Babylon, was ruled by Hammurabi (1792-1750 BC). The Hammurabi code, while not the first legal code, is the most complete. Society was divided into Awilum (free citizens), Wardum (slaves), Muskenum (free citizens dependent on the state), Tamkarum (traders), and Naditu (women devoted to religious activities). The Hittite Kingdom emerged around 1650 BC, reaching its peak under Supiluliuma. Hatussa was its capital.
The Egyptian empire was unified by Narmer, the first pharaoh, who was considered a god. Initially, public jobs were based on qualifications, but later became hereditary. The Egyptian empire experienced periods of stability and instability, divided into the Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. They maintained a permanent, professional army.
Ancient Greek Civilization
The Greek Dark Ages (1200-750 BC) left scant archaeological remains, mainly pottery. The Homeric poems provide some insight, though they blend fact and fiction. Pottery styles (Submycenaean, Protogeometric, and Geometric) show continuity and regional differences. New burial types emerged, and by 900 BC, archaeological sites increased, temples developed, iron was introduced, and trade revived.
Archaic Age and the Rise of the Polis
The Archaic Age saw the formation of the Polis and Greek colonization. The Polis was a small, unified community of citizens. Unlike other ancient city-states, the Polis was ruled by its citizens, not a king or oligarchy. Greek cities developed faster than the rest of Europe, becoming centers of commerce and establishing colonies. The Greek economy featured a division of labor, with many people working as merchants, artisans, or soldiers. Slavery was also a part of the economy.
Ancient Greek Civilization II: Democracy
The political system of the city-state introduced democracy, or Demokratia, meaning power belongs to the citizens. This term originated in Athens in the 5th century BC. The Greeks used the term “radical democracy” to describe this system. Key innovations included the Boulé (council of 500 citizens) and the Heliaea (people’s court). The misthos, a salary for public service, was introduced to allow citizens to participate in government without financial hardship.
Roman Civilization
Roman history began in the Italian peninsula in the 8th century BC. Initially, archaeological evidence was the primary source of information, but later texts became available. The Etruscans, located in central Italy, were a significant civilization due to their access to raw materials like tin, lead, and iron. Roman civilization is divided into four phases: Monarchy, Republic, Empire, and the Western Roman Empire. Roman cities were crucial for the civilization’s growth. New cities were founded to support Rome’s economic interests. They used land and river routes for transportation. The founding of a new city involved four steps: the augur (priest’s role), the inauguratio (opening a circular pit), the limitatio (town planning), and the orientatio (establishing the Forum). Roman houses had various parts, including the Ostium, Atrium, Compluvium, Impluvium, Tablinum, Triclinium, Cubiculum, Culina, and Peristylium.
Prehistory: Before Written Records
Prehistory, defined as the period before written records, spans approximately 2.6 million years. Writing was invented in Mesopotamia, possibly in Uruk, where the earliest clay tablets have been found. Prehistory is divided into the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic periods.
During prehistory, activities such as fishing, painting, and hunting were common. Evidence of these activities has been found in various locations, including tools, art, and environmental data. Sedimentary layers provide a chronological record, with older layers at the bottom and newer layers at the top.
The first human groups originated in Africa. Geneticist Sarah Tishkoff identifies the Khoisan people of Southern Africa as the oldest group. Bipedalism, language development, and brain evolution were key aspects of human evolution.
Early Human Migrations
The first human migration out of Africa is not well-documented. More information is available from 1.6 million years ago. The first migration to Europe came from Asia. Some scholars in the 20th century proposed an early colonization of Europe starting 2 million years ago, but this was later criticized, and a shorter chronology of 0.55 million years was proposed. The oldest archaeological sites in Europe are located in Spain, specifically in Fuente Nueva, Barranco León, and Atapuerca-Sima del Elefante. Homo antecessor is considered the first human species in Europe, with archaic teeth and a modern face. The Acheulean technology was introduced by Homo heidelbergensis.
Neanderthals and Homo Sapiens in Europe
Neanderthals appeared in Europe around 250,000 years ago, during the Middle Pleistocene. Homo heidelbergensis evolved into Homo neanderthalensis. Due to cold conditions, European populations remained isolated for a long time. Neanderthals were shorter and more robust than Homo sapiens, with a cranial capacity of about 1600 cc. Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 34,500 years ago, and Neanderthals disappeared around 28,000 years ago. Homo sapiens had a cranial capacity of around 1350 cc, a vertical forehead, and a chin.
The Upper Paleolithic, the last subdivision of the Paleolithic, dates from 40,000 to 10,000 years ago, coinciding with the appearance of behavioral modernity and before the advent of agriculture. The terms “Late Stone Age” and “Upper Paleolithic” refer to the same period, with “Stone Age” typically used in Africa and “Upper Paleolithic” in Europe.
The Neolithic: A New Way of Life
The Neolithic Age, or New Stone Age, began around 9500 BC in the Middle East. It is characterized by the rise of farming, which led to the “Neolithic Revolution.” This period ended with the widespread use of metal tools in the Copper or Bronze Age. The Neolithic saw the use of wild and domestic crops and domesticated animals. The Neolithic revolution was driven by an imbalance between population growth and natural resources.
The Emergence of Complex Societies: Chalcolithic or Copper Age
The Chalcolithic period, or Copper Age, is a transitional phase between the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. It is characterized by the use of early metal tools alongside stone tools. This period saw economic intensification, social transformation, changes in settlement patterns, and the emergence of complex societies.
Europe During the Bronze Age
The European Bronze Age is characterized by bronze artifacts and implements. It succeeded the Neolithic in the late 3rd millennium BC and lasted until around 600 BC. The Bronze Age in the Ancient Near East began with the rise of Sumer in the 4th millennium BC. The Near East is considered the cradle of civilization, with intensive agriculture, writing systems, the potter’s wheel, centralized governments, law codes, empires, social stratification, slavery, organized warfare, and the foundations of astronomy and mathematics.