American Literature: From the Gilded Age to the Civil Rights Movement
The Gilded Age (1870-1914)
The Gilded Age, spanning from the end of the Civil War to the outbreak of World War I (1870-1914), was a period marked by significant contrasts. It witnessed the rise of individual wealth alongside political corruption and exploitation. This era also saw the opening of the West, the closing of the frontier, and the development of a modern industrial economy. Key figures and concepts of this time include the Robber Barons, their opulent houses, conspicuous consumption, emulation, leisure, the male gaze on women, and the Art Nouveau movement.
Edith Wharton (1862-1937)
Edith Wharton, a prominent writer of the era, hailed from an old New York background but spent much of her life in Europe. She co-authored *The Decoration of Houses* in 1897. Wharton experienced emotional unhappiness and suffered from depression. Her notable works include *Summer* (1917) and *Roman Fever*. Recurrent themes in her writing include the intricacies of Old New York society, the marriage plot, the individual versus societal constraints, and the influence of surroundings on characters. *The House of Mirth* (1897) is one of her most famous novels.
World War I (1914-1918)
World War I had profound political, military, social, cultural, and literary implications. It is considered one of the most violent and, paradoxically, one of the most literary and poetic wars in history. War poetry flourished during this time, with notable works like Rupert Brooke’s “Peace” and Wilfred Owen’s “Dulce et Decorum Est”.
Mary Borden (1886-1968)
Mary Borden is recognized as a canonical writer of World War I. Coming from an upper-class background, she volunteered with the Red Cross and established a hospital-casino in Dunkirk. Her writings often depicted the hospital as a second battlefield, highlighting themes of dissociation, dehumanization, trauma, and censorship.
Modernism
Modernism in literature and art represented a departure from traditional norms. It was characterized by a rejection of ornamentation, a quest for truth, opposition to hypocrisy, minimalism, and the use of stream-of-consciousness techniques. Modernist art rebelled against the dictates of the academy, embracing primitivism, perversity, and a focus on urban life. Internationalism played a significant role, with writers like Ezra Pound, Ernest Hemingway, T.S. Eliot, and F. Scott Fitzgerald finding inspiration in Europe. Stylistic experimentation, stream of consciousness, the theme of alienation, and the portrayal of everyday life were central to Modernist literature.
Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961)
Ernest Hemingway, born into an upper-middle-class family, was known for his macho persona and his time spent in Spain. His writing style embodied the “less is more” principle, the iceberg theory, the code hero, and a laconic approach. In “Hills Like White Elephants,” he employs minimalism, portrays a dishonest male character, and uses alcohol as a motive. The setting of a train station symbolizes a crossroads. “Cat in the Rain” evokes an atmosphere of emptiness and sadness, with rain as a recurring motif and the cat representing a longing for home.
William Faulkner (1897-1962)
William Faulkner explored Southern Gothic themes, delving into the underside of the American Dream, including repression, racism, violence, and poverty. “A Rose for Emily” features a nonlinear structure, shifting between the present and flashbacks. It highlights the conflict between generations and incorporates Gothic elements such as a fallen house, necrophilia, arsenic, mental illness, and isolation. “Dry September” portrays a morally corrupted land, sexual repression, and racism. The character McLendon embodies hypocrisy, as he is abusive towards his wife.
F. Scott Fitzgerald and The Great Gatsby
F. Scott Fitzgerald’s *The Great Gatsby* reflects the economic growth of the 1920s, the rise of modern America, mass entertainment, urbanization, and class mobility associated with the American Dream. The novel contrasts the new rich, represented by Gatsby, with the old rich, represented by Tom. It depicts a liberated society marked by alcohol consumption and nativism (evident in the transformation of Gatz into Gatsby). The narrative structure is nonlinear, with the main plot set in 1922 and flashbacks to 1906-1922. The present is set in 1923-1924. Modernist features include subjectivity and perspectivism. Symbols such as names, colors, space, and objects like Nick’s clock, Eckleburg’s eyes, and the green light carry significant meaning.
The Grapes of Wrath – John Steinbeck
John Steinbeck’s *The Grapes of Wrath* is set against the backdrop of the stock market crash of 1929 and the beginning of the Great Depression. The novel also addresses the ecological crisis of the Dust Bowl, which forced many families to migrate to California in search of better job opportunities. California was perceived as the land of promise. Steinbeck’s work marked a shift towards realism in literature, giving voice to the working class. It has been compared to *Uncle Tom’s Cabin* in its impact, with *The Grapes of Wrath* doing for farmers what the former did for slaves. The novel explores themes of forces that cannot be defeated (natural, social, and political), community and brotherhood, and the human capacity to endure adversity. It is divided into three parts: the reasons for moving, the journey, and the arrival in California and life there. The style is realistic and documentary-like, with references to the Bible.
Golden Age of American Theatre (1945-1960)
The Golden Age of American Theatre was characterized by entertainment rather than literary focus. Tennessee Williams, a prominent playwright of the era, was less interested in social issues and more focused on the psychology of his characters, particularly their sexuality and marginalized status (e.g., Blanche in *A Streetcar Named Desire*). His works often feature psychological focus, exploration of sexuality and desire, social critique, class dynamics, queer characters, and individualistic characters or outcasts who struggle due to their desires.
A Streetcar Named Desire (1947)
*A Streetcar Named Desire* is set in New Orleans and is structured as an episodic drama. Blanche is portrayed as a tragic heroine with self-confidence but also a flaw: her attraction to young men. The play features a reversal of fortune and alludes to the myth of the rape of Philomela, the seven daughters of Atlas, and the underworld. The dynamic between Blanche and Stanley represents the clash between the Old South and the New South.
African American Writing
African American writing gained prominence in the 20th century, building upon 19th-century slave narratives and autobiographies. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920s and 1930s saw a flourishing of African American literature, including works like *A Raisin in the Sun* and Ralph Ellison’s *Invisible Man* (1952). These works often contrasted the ideal of America as a land of freedom with the harsh realities faced by African Americans. Although slavery was abolished in 1865, racial discrimination and segregation persisted. The 1950s witnessed the rise of the Civil Rights Movement, led by figures like Martin Luther King Jr., who delivered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech in 1963. The Voting Rights Act was passed in 1965. A renaissance of African American women writers emerged, including Alice Walker, who addressed issues of race, gender, and class, highlighting social invisibility.
A Raisin in the Sun
*A Raisin in the Sun* is an autobiographical and realistic portrayal of African American life. The title is inspired by a poem by Langston Hughes. The play reflects the developing Black feminist awareness, addressing sexist role patterns within Black communities during the early stages of the Civil Rights Movement.