American History Foundations: Constitutional Era to Manifest Destiny (1787–1850)

Posted on Feb 7, 2026 in History

Key Historical Questions and Answers (1787–1850)

Constitutional Era and Early Republic

Primary Cause of Shays’ Rebellion: Farmers struggling because of debts.
Anti-Federalists: The group that favored a weak or restricted central government.
Constitutional Compromise on Slave Trade: Kept it open for twenty years.
Hamilton’s Financial Plan (Exception): Did *not* include dropping import duties to encourage free trade.
Interpretation of the French Revolution: Most Americans celebrated the spread of republican government.
The XYZ Affair: Scandal that occurred when French diplomats demanded bribes from American officials.
Alien and Sedition Acts (Exception): Did *not* support the “absolute independence” of the press.
Disestablishment: Ending governmental support of a particular religious denomination.
Impact of *Marbury v. Madison* (1803): Established judicial review.
1786 Treaty Role Regarding Native Lands: The United States was to prevent surveyors and other people from crossing the Ohio River to seize Native lands.
Gabriel’s Conspiracy Failure: Two enslaved men revealed the plot to their masters.
Jefferson’s Polygenesis Beliefs: The belief that African-descended peoples were created separately from European-descended peoples.
Federalist View on Anti-Federalist Power Distribution: Believed it was dangerous.
Republican Motherhood: The idea that women were expected to be involved in the political life of the country by raising virtuous citizens.
Jefferson’s Peaceful Coercion Policy: Attempt to use a trade embargo to force Europeans to respect American neutrality.
Native American ‘Play-Off System’: The ability of Native Americans to manipulate rivalries between European powers for their own advantage.
Causes of the War of 1812 (Exception): Not the success of the Embargo of 1807.
Primary Consequence of the War of 1812: Boost in American nationalism.
Gradual Abolition Laws: Only promised to liberate future children born to an enslaved mother.
State Where Women Had Early Suffrage: New Jersey.

Industrialization and Antebellum Society

Principle of Division of Labor (Industrialization): Division of production into discrete steps performed by different workers.
Women Working Outside the Home (Antebellum): Poor women.
Irish Immigrant Settlement: Northeastern cities.
1840s Factory Workers’ Goal: To limit the workday to ten hours per day.
Opponents of National Bank on Democracy: They believed that common people would not make smart decisions.
Tallmadge Amendment Proposal: The gradual abolition of slavery as a condition of Missouri statehood.
Missouri Compromise Condition: Maine entered as a free state.
Cult of True Womanhood: Social standards that emphasized piety, purity, domesticity, and submissiveness.

Jacksonian Era and Political Conflict

Jackson’s Invasion of Florida (Exception): Jackson was *not* operating under clear, specific orders to subdue the Seminole Indians.
Jackson’s 1828 Appeal: He presented himself as a frontier war hero and champion of “ordinary white Americans” over the wealthy elite.
Complication in Jackson’s Marriage: Rachel’s divorce to her previous husband was not yet complete.
Nullification Crisis Origin: Tariffs.
Dissolution of Jackson’s Cabinet: The Eaton Affair.
Jackson’s Veto of the Bank: He thought the Bank gave too much power to wealthy people and hurt ordinary citizens.
Jackson’s Supporters/Opponents: Supporters were **Democrats**; opponents formed the **Whigs**.
Contribution to the Panic of 1837: The Specie Circular of 1836 led land buyers to drain eastern banks of gold and silver.
Whig 1840 Nomination Strategy: Clay’s reputation as a compromiser did not appeal to the strong partisans in the Whig Party.
Whig Conspiracy Theory Target (1830s): The Masonic Order (Anti-Masonic movement).
False Statement on Antebellum Voting Rights: Voting rights among African Americans increased during antebellum America (They generally decreased).
Goal of Indian Removal Act: To negotiate with Native American tribes to exchange their lands in states for territory west of the Mississippi River.

Second Great Awakening and Reform

Denomination Least Favorable to SGA: Episcopalians.
Cultural Shift During SGA: Americans were turning away from Calvinism.
SGA Promoting Egalitarianism: All of the above (Mass participation, spiritual equality, etc.).
Theological Argument (Likely Finney): Christianity requires that a person give up self-love in favor of loving others.
Benevolent Movement Strongest in 1820s: Temperance.
Woman Abolitionist (1830s): Lucretia Mott.
Abolitionist Societies Growth Decade: 1830s.
Shift to Immediatism: Reading fiery tracts penned by black northerners David Walker and James Forten.
Immediate End to Slavery Advocates: Abolitionists.
Consequence of 1839 Anti-Slavery Society Division: Disagreements over the usefulness of electoral politics and the importance of women’s rights.
Major African American Abolitionist: Frederick Douglass.
Feminist Justification for Activism: Women were expected to be the moral caretakers of the home and therefore it was their duty to speak out on moral issues.
Declaration of Sentiments Basis: Declaration of Independence.
Angelina Grimké’s 1836 Appeal (Exception): Not based on her educational credentials.

Manifest Destiny and Western Expansion

Internal Improvements (Manifest Destiny Era): The building of roads, canals, steamboats, and other internal improvements.
Native Group Maintaining Autonomy: Comanche.
Causes of Texas Revolution: Disagreements over slavery, immigration, and cultural/political conflicts with Mexico.
Slavery Contention (Texas Revolution): Mexico abolished slavery in 1829.
Consequence of Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): The United States acquired a vast region, including present-day California, Utah, and Nevada; most of Arizona; and parts of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming, intensifying debates over slavery in the new territories.
Primary Goal of Antebellum Foreign Policy: Expansion of economic opportunity.
Filibustering Definition: Unauthorized military expeditions led by private American citizens into Latin America to seize territory for the United States.

Historical Glossary of the Early Republic and Antebellum Era

Constitutional Convention: Meeting to rewrite U.S. government.
Connecticut Compromise: Created a two-house Congress, balancing representation for big and small states.
Federalists: Supported a strong national federal government.
Three-fifths Clause: Slaves counted partially for representation.
Bill of Rights: First ten constitutional amendments.
Haitian Revolution (1791–1804): Slave uprising creating independent Haiti.
Louisiana Purchase (1803): France sold vast western territory to the U.S.
Alexander Hamilton: Federalist finance leader, advocated for a national bank.
Thomas Jefferson: Democratic-Republican, wrote the Declaration of Independence, and served as president.
Bank of the United States: National bank managing federal finances.
Democratic-Republican Party: Favored states’ rights and farmers.
Jay’s Treaty: Peace agreement between the U.S. and Britain.
Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Suppressed immigrants and political speech.
Disestablishment: Ending government-supported churches.
Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established the power of judicial review.
Tecumseh: Shawnee leader resisting expansion.
Tenskwatawa: Prophet promoting Native spiritual revival.
Enlightenment: Intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and human improvement.
Notes on the State of Virginia: Jefferson’s writings on racial beliefs and society.
Polygenesis: The belief that races were created separately by God.
Republican Motherhood: The idea that women should teach future citizens virtue.
Impressments: Britain forced sailors into its navy.
The War of 1812: U.S. versus Britain over rights.
Red Stick Creeks: Creek faction fighting Americans.
Battle of New Orleans (1815): Andrew Jackson’s victory after the peace treaty was signed.
Erie Canal: Linked the Midwest to the Atlantic.
Lowell Mills: Factories employing young women as laborers.
Steamboat: Enabled faster river travel and trade.
Telegraphs: Instant long-distance communication lines.
Railroads: Rapid transport across states.
Gradual Abolition: Laws that freed enslaved children later in life.
Cotton Gin: Machine that increased cotton production and slavery.
Irish Immigration: Poor Catholics settling primarily in northern cities.
“German Triangle”: German settlement region including Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee.
Know-Nothing Party: Anti-immigrant, anti-Catholic political party.
Nativism: Hostility toward foreign immigrants.
Missouri Compromise (1820): Balanced slave and free states.
Andrew Jackson: “Common man” president, known for expansionist policies.
John Quincy Adams: Nationalist president, supported internal improvements.
Nullification Crisis: States challenged federal tariffs.
Eaton Affairs (“Petticoat Affair”): Cabinet scandal causing resignations.
Bank War: Jackson destroyed the national bank.
Whig Party: Opposed Jackson, favored Congressional power.
Anti-Masonic Party: Against the Freemasons’ secret influence.
Indian Removal Act (1830): Forced Native relocation west.
Trail of Tears (1838): Cherokee deadly forced march west.
Second Great Awakening: Religious revival characterized by mass conversions.
Spiritual Egalitarianism: The belief that all people are equal before God spiritually.
Burnt-Over District: New York region known as a revival hotspot.
Charles Finney: Influential revival preacher leader.
Seneca Falls Convention: First women’s rights meeting.
Declaration of Sentiments: Document outlining women’s rights demands.
Temperance: Movement to stop or limit alcohol consumption.
Oneida Communities: Utopian communal living society.
Brook Farm: Transcendentalist utopian community.
Dorothea Dix: Reformer who improved mental hospitals.
Rehabilitation: The goal of reforming criminals through improvement.
Benevolent Empire: Network of religious reform organizations.
Immediatism in Abolition: The demand for the immediate end to slavery.
“Petit Gulf” Cotton: Strain that increased cotton productivity.
Cotton Belt: Southern high-production cotton region.
Black Belt: Fertile region with an enslaved majority.
“The Curse of Ham”: Biblical justification used for slavery.
Second Middle Passage: Internal slave trade within the South.
Manifest Destiny: The belief in a God-given right to expand westward.
Seminole: Florida Native group resisting removal.
Treaty of New Echota (1835): Controversial Cherokee removal agreement.
Cherokee: Native nation resisting U.S. removal.
Civilization Fund Act: Funding for Native cultural assimilation.
Comanche: Powerful Plains horse warriors.
Texas Revolution (1835–1836): Texans rebel against Mexico.
Texas Annexation: U.S. adds Texas territory.
U.S.-Mexican War (1846–1848): Conflict over Texas expansion.
Nueces Strip: Disputed land between rivers.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848): U.S. gains Southwest land.
Gold Rush: California migration seeking gold.
James Monroe: President who issued a foreign policy doctrine.
Monroe Doctrine: Policy stating Europe must stay out of the Americas.
Filibustering: Unauthorized invasions for expansion.

1. Constitutional Convention and Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans

At the Constitutional Convention, delegates had to make compromises so the new government would work for both big and small states. The Connecticut Compromise created a two-house Congress where the House was based on population and the Senate had equal representation. The Three-Fifths Compromise counted enslaved people toward representation, which helped the South gain power. The Electoral College was another compromise that tried to balance popular vote and expert decision-making. These choices show how leaders tried to keep everyone in the union even when they disagreed.

Federalists like Alexander Hamilton wanted a strong national government with support for business and manufacturing. They also wanted the Bank of the United States because it would control money and help the economy grow. Democratic-Republicans like Thomas Jefferson thought farmers were the most important Americans and wanted more power for states instead of the federal government. They supported France since that revolution seemed similar to America’s. Federalists trusted wealthy and educated leaders, while Democratic-Republicans believed ordinary white men should have more influence. These ideas created the first political parties.

2. Freedom, Power, and Inclusion in the Early Republic

In the early Republic, Americans talked a lot about freedom but did not include everyone in it. Most freedom applied only to white men who owned property. Thomas Jefferson wrote about equality in the Declaration of Independence, but in Notes on the State of Virginia he defended slavery and argued that Black people were naturally inferior (polygenesis). Native Americans were seen as obstacles to American progress and were pushed off their land. These ideas let people claim that America stood for liberty while still denying liberty to many groups.

Progress was also defined in ways that left people out. Republican Motherhood said women should teach their sons to be good citizens but could not vote or participate directly in politics. Religious and educational ideas from the Enlightenment helped create voting rights for more white men but still excluded women and non-white people. Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa tried to protect Native communities from American expansion because they saw progress as dangerous to their culture. These examples illustrate how ideas about freedom and progress benefited some individuals while harming others.

3. Jacksonian Democracy and Its Limits

During Andrew Jackson’s presidency, more white men were able to vote because property requirements were removed in many states. Jackson said he represented the “common man” and not wealthy elites. He challenged the Bank of the United States because he believed it gave the rich too much influence in government. Political participation grew as more people attended rallies and voted in elections. These changes made the United States seem more democratic for white citizens and helped Jackson gain a lot of popularity.

Even though democracy expanded, it still had major limits. Jackson used strong federal power during the Nullification Crisis when South Carolina tried to reject a tariff. His Indian Removal Act forced Native nations like the Cherokee to move west. The Trail of Tears caused thousands of deaths and showed that Native rights did not matter to the federal government. Slavery also continued to grow in the South during these years because cotton became more profitable. Jacksonian democracy protected the rights of white men but ignored the rights of Black and Indigenous people.

4. Second Great Awakening and Reform Movements

The Second Great Awakening was a religious revival that encouraged people to change their lives and improve society. Preachers like Charles Finney traveled and spoke to large crowds, especially in the Burnt-Over District in New York. They said anyone could find salvation through personal choice. This idea of spiritual egalitarianism made many people believe they could help build a more moral country. Revival meetings gave women and poor people more chances to participate in religion. Religion then inspired many reform movements.

The temperance movement tried to end or limit alcohol use because people believed drinking destroyed families. Women gained confidence in these movements and later organized the Seneca Falls Convention where they wrote the Declaration of Sentiments calling for equal rights. Abolitionists argued slavery was a sin and pushed immediatism, which meant slavery should end right away. Reformers like Dorothea Dix also worked to improve prisons and asylums to focus on rehabilitation. These actions show how religion motivated Americans to try to fix major problems.

5. War with Mexico and Its Consequences

The United States went to war with Mexico in 1846 because Americans wanted more territory in the West and believed in Manifest Destiny. President James K. Polk said Mexico attacked American troops in the Nueces Strip, which was a disputed border area. Many Americans wanted California and other land for farming and trade. Some leaders supported the war because they hoped slavery could expand into the new territory. Newspapers helped encourage excitement for the war, but some Americans questioned whether it was fair.

The war changed life for the United States, Mexico, and Indigenous nations. When the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war, Mexico lost a huge amount of land including present-day California, New Mexico, and the Southwest. Debates over slavery grew stronger because no one agreed whether the new land should be free or slave. Indigenous groups like the Comanche faced more attacks as settlers pushed westward. Mexican residents in the new territories lost rights and were treated like outsiders. The war made the United States much bigger, but it also increased conflict and set the stage for bigger disagreements in the future.