American, French Revolutions & Napoleonic Era
American Revolution: Origin of Independence
The American Revolution stemmed from the cost of the Seven Years’ War between Britain and France. Britain sought to impose taxes on American colonists, who resisted, arguing “no taxation without representation.” The Boston Tea Party, a protest against tea taxes, led to the closure of Boston Harbor. In 1776, delegates from 13 colonies met, listing grievances and proclaiming independence on July 4th.
U.S. War of Independence
In the first phase, led by George Washington, the victory at Saratoga convinced France and Spain to support the rebels. In the second phase, British troops were defeated at Yorktown. The Treaty of Versailles recognized American independence.
American Constitution
After the war, Alexander Hamilton proposed a constitution establishing a political system with three branches:
- Legislative: Composed of the Senate and House of Representatives.
- Executive: A president elected by universal male suffrage for four years, appointing government members and commanding the armies.
- Judicial: Independent of political power, headed by the Supreme Court, appointed by the president, to review the constitutionality of laws.
French Revolution: Origins
France faced an economic crisis, exacerbated by its involvement in the American Revolution. The nobility forced the convening of the Estates-General, expecting to maintain their privileges. However, the Third Estate demanded voting by head, not by estate, proclaiming itself the National Assembly, a revolutionary act.
French Revolution (1789-1799)
The National Assembly, later the National Constituent Assembly, abolished feudalism and declared the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The king’s attempted escape led to war with Austria and Prussia. The monarchy was abolished, and Louis XVI was executed. The Jacobins, led by Robespierre, instituted the Reign of Terror. Eventually, a conservative republic, the Directory, was established, culminating in Napoleon’s coup d’état.
Napoleonic Europe
Expansion
Napoleon normalized relations with the Church through the Concordat and established the Civil Code. He was proclaimed Consul for life and later Emperor.
Napoleonic Empire
Napoleon’s victories led to the formation of the Confederation of the Rhine and the Kingdom of Holland. The Continental System aimed to weaken Britain. However, the invasion of Russia and the Peninsular War in Spain led to Napoleon’s downfall. He was defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Legacy of Napoleon
Napoleon left a significant legislative legacy, including the Napoleonic Code, which influenced civil codes worldwide.
Restoration in Europe
European Restoration
After Napoleon’s defeat, the Congress of Vienna aimed to restore the old monarchies and redraw the European map. The Quadruple Alliance was formed to maintain the new order.
Liberalism and Nationalism
The period saw waves of liberal and nationalist revolutions:
- 1820-1825: Revolutions in Spain, Portugal, and Spanish America, characterized by anti-absolutism and nationalism.
- 1830: Revolutions in France, Belgium, and Poland, with liberal and nationalist components. Belgium gained independence.
- 1848: Revolutions across Europe, including France, Italy, and the German states, marked by liberal, nationalist, and socialist demands.