American & French Revolutions, Liberalism & Unifications
Reasons for American Independence
Early Settlement and Enlightenment
Numerous English settlers had settled in the thirteen colonies of the North American Atlantic coastal strip since the early seventeenth century. Among them, Enlightenment ideas had spread.
Taxation Without Representation
The conflict began when Britain imposed new taxes on its American colonies. The settlers refused to pay, arguing that they had no representatives in Parliament.
British Military Intervention
In 1773, Britain tried to subdue the colonists with the army, making war inevitable.
Key Facts of the American Revolution
- On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of Independence of the Thirteen Colonies was proclaimed in Philadelphia, encompassing Enlightenment principles, including the right to equality, freedom, and happiness, and forms of government based on popular sovereignty.
- The U.S. Army, under the command of George Washington, defeated British troops. Peace was signed in 1783, and Britain recognized the independence of these colonies. The new country was called the United States of America, and George Washington became its first president.
The US Constitution
In 1787, the United States adopted the Constitution, which still stands today. This established popular sovereignty and the division of governmental powers: legislative power corresponded to Congress, the judiciary to the Supreme Court, and the executive to the president of the nation, elected for 4 years. The political system adopted was the federal republic.
The French Revolution
Late 18th Century France
In the late 18th century, King Louis XVI of France ruled absolutely. The outbreak of the French Revolution marked the end of his reign and the structures of the old regime.
Causes of the Revolution
Economic Crisis
From 1760, the French state went through a financial crisis caused by heavy debt from the Seven Years’ War and aid provided to the North American settlers in their war against Britain. Poor harvests in 1788 and 1789 caused the price of bread to rise to levels unaffordable for farmers and commoners in cities.
Social Inequality
Louis XVI’s finance ministers attempted to reduce the state debt by increasing taxes and extending them to the privileged classes, who clung to their privilege of not paying taxes.
Political Ideologies
Enlightenment ideas provided the ideological foundations necessary to overthrow the old regime.
Phases of the French Revolution
The National Assembly and Riots
The Third Estate abandoned the Estates-General and became the National Assembly to give France a constitution.
The Constituent Assembly
The National Assembly became the Constituent Assembly, as its objective was to develop a constitution. During this period, feudal privileges were abolished, and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was drafted. A constitution was approved, establishing national sovereignty residing in the people, leading to a constitutional monarchy and ending absolutism.
The French Republic and War
The new house, now called the National Convention, abolished the monarchy and proclaimed the republic. In 1793, the king was executed, being accused of treason. This year, a new democratic constitution was adopted, establishing universal male suffrage. This marked the beginning of the triumph of radical revolutionaries (Jacobins) supported by the sans-culottes. To control the situation, the regime became a dictatorship in which anyone suspected of opposition to the Republic or the revolution could be executed. This stage, called the Reign of Terror, was led by Robespierre.
The Directory and the Rise of Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in 1804.
Domestic Policy
A civil code was drawn up, enshrining individual liberty, guaranteeing private property, and equality of all citizens before the law. Education was reformed.
Foreign Policy
Napoleon extended his empire in Europe. France beat Austria, Prussia, and Russia but did not defeat Britain, which underwent a continental blockade. Napoleon was exiled, and the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France. However, Napoleon returned to France and power with the rule of the Hundred Days. He was finally defeated at Waterloo and exiled to St. Helena.
Congress of Vienna
- Belgium and Holland were united into one kingdom (Netherlands).
- Italy was divided, and the Austrian presence was maintained in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.
- France returned to its borders of 1792.
- A confederation of 39 German states (German Confederation) was created, with Austria and Prussia vying for dominance.
- Prussia annexed Rhineland.
Liberal Doctrine
Liberalism is a political ideology developed in the nineteenth century. Its aim was to safeguard individual liberty as opposed to the absolute power of kings. It held that power resided in the people and that those with wealth should exercise power.
Liberal Principles
- National sovereignty
- Separation of powers
- Promulgation of a constitution
- Freedom
- Natural rights
Liberal Revolutions
- In 1821, Greece revolted against the Ottoman Empire and, after a war aided by European powers, gained independence in 1829.
- In 1830, a new revolutionary process in France dethroned the Bourbon dynasty and brought Louis Philippe of Orleans to the throne, who ruled through a constitution. That same year, Belgium became independent from Holland.
Unification of Italy
Key Players
The Kingdom of Sardinia, with its king Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Cavour, were the architects of the unification.
Developments
The Kingdom of Piedmont, supported by France, managed to eject Austria from Lombardy. Afterward, the central states of Italy joined Piedmont, followed by Naples and Sicily, thanks to the revolutionary actions of Garibaldi. Later, Venice and Rome joined, and Rome became the capital of the nation.
German Unification
Phases
- Danish War (1860): Prussia and Austria conquered Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg.
- Austro-Prussian War (1866): Prussia invaded the Austrian Duchy of Lauenburg, resulting in the Austrian defeat at Sadowa.
- Franco-Prussian War (1870): Southern German states joined Prussia. France opposed this, leading to the Ems Dispatch.