American & French Revolutions: A New Political Order

Posted on May 1, 2024 in History

POLITICAL REVOLUTION

THE BEGINNING OF THE CONTEMPORARY ERA: FRENCH AND AMERICAN REVOLUTIONS

The year 1789 brought permanent changes to the way people thought. The French Revolution signaled the end of the Ancien Régime, absolutist monarchy, privileged estates, and an absence of freedom or rights for the majority of the people.

WHAT WAS THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION?

  • 1775-1783: 13 colonies won independence from Great Britain and became the USA.
  • Also called the American War of Independence.
  • Independence Day: July 4th, 1776, when 12 of 13 colonies signed the Declaration of Independence.
  • Colonies were founded by European migrants and belonged politically to Great Britain in the 18th century.
  • Differences arose between the colonies and Great Britain.
  • Colonists paid high taxes to Great Britain but had no political representation.
  • Disputes escalated into open war, lasting until 1783.
  • France aided the settlers in the war against Great Britain.

A NEW POLITICAL ORDER

The Americans chose their own form of government, establishing a constitution that reflected the concept of the separation of powers of the state into three areas (elected by the people):

  • Power and sovereignty reside in the people, not in a king.
  • Separation of powers into three branches:

Legislative Power (Congress)

  • A Senate
  • Writes legislation and laws
  • Decides budgets

Executive Power (Government)

  • A President and elected ministers
  • Govern (apply the laws)

Judicial Power (Judiciary)

  • The High Court judges
  • Judge with reference to the written laws

FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCED THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

A hundred years prior, the English had implemented a parliamentary system based on the sharing of royal power with a parliament in a wider legislative process. Enlightenment thinkers also played a significant role:

  • Montesquieu (1689-1755): Nobleman who wrote “The Spirit of the Laws,” Montesquieu was the first to articulate the doctrine of the separation of powers in detail. His work justified the structure of the American Constitution.
  • Rousseau (1712-1778): In “The Social Contract,” Rousseau argued against the Divine Right of Kings, stating that a government can only obtain authority over the people if the people themselves consent to that authority.
  • Sieyès (1748-1836): Despite his noble status, Sieyès identified with the 3rd estate and was elected as a delegate to the Estates-General from Paris. He made three famous demands: members of the 3rd estate should elect their own delegates, the number of delegates should be equal to the other two estates, and the Estates-General should be elected on a one-person, one-vote basis. He also contributed to the Declaration of the Rights of Man.

FRANCE: THE ROOTS OF DISCONTENT

1. Political Power

The bourgeoisie lacked political influence as part of the 3rd estate. In 1789, the Estates-General was convened by the king to change the taxation system so that all estates would pay taxes.

2. Taxation Obligations

The 1st and 2nd estates were ‘privileged’ with money and land and did not pay taxes. The 3rd estate, the poorest, bore the burden of all taxes. Before the revolution, taxes increased due to the poor state of the French economy.

IMMEDIATE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION

  • The system of administration and taxation made it impossible to obtain more taxes, as the 3rd estate was unable to pay more. The Estates-General’s attempt to change the taxation system led to conflict about the voting system within the three estates.
  • The American War caused a new financial crisis.
  • Crop failures and severe winters led to rising cereal prices, affecting the urban poor and impoverishing the 3rd estate. The market for manufactured goods went into recession, causing a financial crisis and increased unemployment.

THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA

At the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), the four major powers that defeated Napoleon (Austria, Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain) aimed to reverse the ‘Napoleon effect’:

  • Returned France to its pre-Napoleonic borders.
  • Restored legitimate monarchs to every European country.
  • Created a balance of power to prevent another Napoleon.
  • Agreed to intervene in a state’s internal conflict if the monarch was in danger.
  • Organized a ‘Congress’ system to resolve potential disputes.
  • During this period, Napoleon briefly returned from exile in Elba to regain power. After ‘The Hundred Days,’ coalition forces defeated him and his supporters, sending him into exile on St. Helena in the South Atlantic.