Alexander the Great’s Army: Strategies, Innovations, and Legacy
According to Arrian’s Campaigns of Alexander, Alexander once said, “I do not fear an army of lions led by a sheep, but I do fear an army of sheep led by a lion.” This famous quote clearly illustrates Alexander the Great’s vision of leadership. It suggests that he saw leadership as an essential ingredient in military strategy. The lion he refers to is clearly representative of himself and the sheep of his obedient and loyal troops. Alexander’s desire for glory, willpower, and absolute confidence were the backbone of his leadership and resulted in a fierce and unbeatable army. For this reason, he succeeded in leading his men thousands of miles, through all types of terrains, all the way to India where they only stopped due to exhaustion. His vision of conquest was premised upon a desire to liberate the east from tyranny and to spread Greek values and customs.
Philip II’s Innovations
Alexander the Great owed his father a debt of gratitude for having innovated the Macedonian army during his tenure as king. It would be unlikely that Alexander would have conquered Persia had the strategies of his father’s army not been put in place. The army went from being voluntary to a well-run, professional army. What made them professional is the fact that they were paid a fixed and guaranteed salary and spent all of their time learning various military strategies and training for battle. Thanks to his father, the weaponry the army used radically changed. Philip changed the principle weapon from the hoplite spear to the sarissa, an 18-foot pike, which had the advantage of reaching beyond the shorter spears of the enemy. However, because of its length, the sarissa needed extensive practice to be effective.
Due to his varied military experience prior to becoming king, Alexander continually learned how to improve from each military encounter. So, even though his father increased the size of his army, innovated the Phalanx corp of the infantry, and incorporated new military weaponry, Alexander further innovated all his father’s strategies, adapting them to each new military encounter.
The Phalanx and Cavalry: Cornerstones of Alexander’s Army
Alexander’s army was exceptional for two reasons: the Phalanx and the cavalry. The nature of the phalanx, a highly trained infantry positioned in a box formation, demanded constant drilling, absolute obedience, and loyalty of the soldiers who were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the king. Any soldier disobeying orders was severely punished. In battle, the first five rows of the Phalanx lowered their sarissa while the rest held them parallel to the ground. The army wore uniforms for the first time, a simple idea that gave each man a sense of unity and solidarity. For the first time in Greek history, soldiers dedicated their lives to one army and one king. The one disadvantage of the Phalanx, though, was that it required flat terrain. However, Alexander used it with incredible success while hiding its weaknesses from the enemy.
Hoplites, formerly infantry soldiers, now became pezhetairoi, also known as foot companions. These soldiers bore a spear that was carried by a sling over their shoulders. Each soldier also had a double-edged sword for man-to-man combat. Philip got his idea for this innovation while he was held hostage in Thebes and observing their famous “Sacred Band”. He increased the size of his army from 10,000 men to 24,000 men, the cavalry from 600 men to 35,000 men. Philip also started a corp of engineers to develop siege weaponry such as towers and catapults. Later on, Alexander used these advancements with incredible success at Tyre where he killed 6,000 people and enslaved 30,000.
Alexander’s Military Formations and Tactics
In almost every campaign, Alexander’s army formation remained the same, with a few exceptions. At Hydaspes, he led his army with archers rather than the Phalanx because of the elephants of King Porous. Normally, however, the “companion foot soldiers” took center position of attack, the hypaspists (shield bearers) took the right position of the phalanx with the cavalry at each side. Archers and light infantry served on the outer flanks and rear. The companion soldiers were taught to maintain rank no matter what unless ordered to do so in a smooth, organized manner. This system was very effective at Gaugamela.
The hypaspists were very mobile because they were lightly armed with only a short spear or javelin. Some were bodyguards to the king and given the title royal hypaspists.
On both the right and the left flanks were the cavalry who were the army’s main strike force because they could break enemy lines. This was evident at the battles of Granicus, Issus, and Gaugamela. There were two divisions: companions and scouts. Companions were led by King Alexander on the right side of the enemy while the scouts attacked from the left flank. The scouts had many famous commanders such as Philotas, Cleitus, Parmenio, and arguably Alexander’s favorite, Hephaestion. They were divided into eight squadrons of 200 soldiers, each carrying nine-foot lances.
Conclusion: A Legacy of Military Genius
It is clear that though Alexander’s father, Philip, was the source of many innovations for the army, Alexander was the one who used them to their fullest potential. His military prowess, detailed in Arrian’s Campaigns of Alexander, is the main reason for his title “Alexander the Great” and was a key factor in his conquering of one of the largest empires in history.