Al-Andalus: Middle Ages Iberian Peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages: Al-Andalus
Political Developments
Conquest, Emirate, and Caliphate of Cordoba
In 711, amidst a Visigothic power struggle, Witiza sought help from Muslims in North Africa. Musa ibn Nusayr sent Tariq ibn Ziyad with Berber troops, leading to the defeat of Rodrigo at the Guadalete River and the subsequent Muslim conquest of Toledo. Local authorities negotiated deals with the invaders, including Abd al-Aziz’s pact in Andalusia and Teodomiro’s pact in Murcia, granting relative autonomy. By 714, Zaragoza was conquered, and Musa advanced towards Narbonne. The Iberian Peninsula became an emirate under the Umayyad Caliphate of Damascus.
Political instability arose from frequent changes of governors appointed by Damascus and conflicts between Arabs and Berbers over land distribution and taxes. Muslim expansion into Europe was halted by Charles Martel’s victories at Poitiers (732) and along the Rhone (738), leading to consolidation within the Iberian Peninsula.
The Abbasid rebellion in Damascus ended Umayyad rule, shifting the capital to Baghdad. Abd al-Rahman I, an Umayyad survivor, escaped to the Maghreb and landed in the Iberian Peninsula in 755, proclaiming himself emir and establishing an independent Umayyad state in Cordoba.
Abd al-Rahman III consolidated power and declared himself Caliph in 929, assuming both political and religious leadership. He countered Fatimid influence in the Mediterranean, conquering Ceuta and Melilla. His successor, Hisham II, ruled under the powerful vizier, Almanzor, who enforced tribute payments from Christian kingdoms and maintained Muslim military dominance until his death in 1002. Almanzor’s sons continued his policies until power struggles led to the caliphate’s fragmentation in 1031.
The Crisis of the Eleventh Century
The Taifa Kingdoms and Northern Empires
In 1031, Hisham III, the last Umayyad caliph, was deposed, and the caliphate dissolved into 26 Taifa kingdoms, grouped by dominant ethnicities: Andalusians, Slavs, and Berbers. Ethnic clashes and militarism prevailed, with no single kingdom strong enough to dominate. Taifas sought assistance from Christian kings, paying tributes (parias) in exchange.
The fall of Toledo to Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085 marked a turning point. Muslim rulers then sought help from the Almoravids, a North African Muslim empire. The Almoravids defeated Alfonso VI but were later replaced by the Almohads, another North African power, who established their capital in Seville.
The Almohads suffered a defeat at Alarcos against Castile but controlled Al-Andalus. A Christian coalition led by Alfonso VIII of Castile decisively defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Navas de Tolosa (1212), marking the beginning of the Muslim decline. New Taifa kingdoms emerged, including the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, which paid tribute to Castile and survived until 1492, when it fell to the Catholic Monarchs.
Al-Andalus: Economic and Social Organization
Al-Andalus had a thriving agricultural, craft, and trade economy with significant urban development.
- Agriculture: New irrigation techniques boosted orchard productivity. Oil production continued, and new crops like rice, citrus, cotton, and saffron were introduced.
- Livestock: Sheep, donkeys, mules, and horses replaced pigs due to Islamic dietary laws.
- Craft: Cities were economic hubs, with gold and silver work, leather, paper, and textile production.
- Mining: Lead, iron, marble, and gold mining flourished.
- Commerce: Trade thrived within cities and internationally, with souks serving as marketplaces. Currency circulated based on the silver dirham and gold dinar.
The Caliph headed the administration, leading domestic and foreign policy, the judiciary, and religious life. He was advised by the hachib (prime minister) and viziers (ministers). Kadis administered justice. Wal is (governors) oversaw territorial administration, and prefects managed local government. State revenue came from charity, taxes (tithes) on Muslims, Mozarabs, and Jews, and tributes from Christian kings.
Muslim society was hierarchical, with Arab noble families at the top, managing large estates and holding their own jurisdiction. Below them were lower agricultural and craft classes, legally distinct from the upper class. Slaves formed the lowest caste, serving in households, the military, or under the Caliphate’s protection.
The Cultural Legacy
Arab culture, influenced by Hellenistic, Persian, Indian, and Chinese elements, was advanced. Theology and medicine were prominent sciences. Philosophers grappled with reconciling reason and divine truth. Ibn Tufail al-Qaysi argued that reason could lead to knowledge of God, while Averroes, a prominent philosopher, emphasized reason’s supremacy based on Aristotle’s work.
Arabic was the official language, alongside Mozarabic, a Romance language derived from Latin. Classical Arabic literature followed Orientalizing trends, while vernacular Arabic poetry had a local character. Notable poets include Ibn Hazm and Ibn Zaydun in the cultured style, and Muqaddam ben Muafa (inventor of the muwassaha) and Abenguzmán (developer of the zejel) in the popular style.