Al-Andalus: History, Society, and Economy in Medieval Iberia
Al-Andalus in the Middle Ages
The Emirate Period (713-929)
The Dependent Emirate (713-755)
In 711, Tariq ibn Ziyad, the Berber governor of Tangier, led a force of approximately 7,000 soldiers across the Strait of Gibraltar, defeating the Visigothic King Roderic at the Battle of Guadalete. Reinforced by Musa ibn Nusayr’s troops, the Muslim armies swiftly conquered most of the Iberian Peninsula within two years. Several factors contributed to the Visigothic collapse, including internal strife following the death of King Wittiza in 710 and the Muslim’s promise to maintain existing properties in exchange for taxes, a system perceived as less burdensome than the Visigothic one. Initially, the Iberian Peninsula became an emirate dependent on the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus, with Córdoba as its capital. In 732, the Muslim advance into Frankish territory was halted by Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers.
The Independent Emirate (750-929)
In 750, the Abbasids overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate. Abd al-Rahman I, an Umayyad survivor, escaped to Spain, where he defeated the existing Amir Yusuf in 755 and declared an independent emirate. His reign, ending in 788, marked a period of prosperity for Al-Andalus. He initiated the construction of the Mosque of Córdoba and reformed the army. In 777, he repelled Charlemagne’s Frankish forces at Zaragoza. Abd al-Rahman II (822-852) further improved state administration and continued construction projects. Internal conflicts resurfaced under later emirs, notably the revolt of Umar ibn Hafsun in the Serrania de Ronda.
The Caliphate of Córdoba (929-1031)
Abd al-Rahman III (912-961) consolidated power, suppressing revolts and proclaiming the Caliphate of Córdoba in 929. He established Medina Azahara as his administrative center. The Caliph, or hachib, was the supreme authority, assisted by a prime minister (vizier) and governors (walis) for each province (cora). Muslims paid alms tax (zakat), while non-Muslims paid personal and land taxes (jizya and kharaj). Christian kings in the north acknowledged the Caliph’s authority through tribute payments. Al-Hakam II (961-976) continued the Caliphate’s golden age, expanding the Mosque of Córdoba and its renowned library. Hisham II (979-1009) relied heavily on his vizier, Almanzor, who effectively ruled as a dictator, launching numerous campaigns against the Christian kingdoms. Almanzor’s death in 1002 marked the beginning of internal strife that ultimately led to the Caliphate’s disintegration in 1031.
Taifa Kingdoms, Almoravids, Almohads, and the Nasrid Kingdom
Taifa Kingdoms
The Caliphate’s collapse resulted in the emergence of numerous small kingdoms known as taifas, including Zaragoza, Seville, Badajoz, and Córdoba. These kingdoms often paid tribute (parias) to the Christian kingdoms.
Almoravids and Almohads
The advances of Christian kings like Ferdinand I and Alfonso VI prompted the taifas to seek help from North African Muslim powers. The Almoravids, based in Marrakech, defeated Alfonso VI at the Battle of Sagrajas (1086) and incorporated Al-Andalus into their empire. In the 12th century, the Almohads, another Berber dynasty, gained control, briefly unifying Al-Andalus and defeating the Castilians at Alarcos (1195). However, a Christian coalition led by Alfonso VIII of Castile decisively defeated the Almohads at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212).
The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada
Following Las Navas de Tolosa, Al-Andalus was reduced to the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, founded in 1232 by Muhammad I ibn al-Ahmar. This last Muslim kingdom in Iberia, with its capital in Granada, persisted until its conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492.
Economy and Society in Al-Andalus
Economy
Al-Andalus enjoyed a flourishing economy, surpassing the Christian kingdoms of the north, largely due to advanced agricultural practices and trade. Irrigation systems supported the cultivation of Mediterranean crops like olives, grapes, and wheat. New crops were introduced, including citrus fruits, rice, sugarcane, and cotton. Craft production thrived, fueling both internal and external trade. The Andalusian currency, including the gold dinar, silver dirham, and copper fals, facilitated trade throughout Europe.
Society
Urban Life
Al-Andalus boasted numerous vibrant cities, with Córdoba, reaching a population of 300,000, as its prominent center. The Mosque-Cathedral and the Caliphal palace were its most significant landmarks.
Social Groups
Religion established the first division of the Andalusian society. Among Muslims there are groups of diverse origins.
“The Arab minority, which constituted the social elite and occupied the highest positions of government.
“The Syrians were integrated into the army.
“The Berbers. They settled in marginal areas. Pastoralists,
“The renegade Christians, peninsular population converted to Islam.
Also lived in Al Andalus both Christians who continued to practice their religion, called Mozarabic and Jews as the Mozarabic they respect their laws and customs.
From the socioeconomic standpoint, the Andalusian population was divided into the following groups:
“The jassa or upper class aristocrats constituted by coming to power.
“The al-Ayan or upper middle class, composed of the merchants.
“The umma or lower class, majority population group.