Al-Andalus: History of Muslim Spain in the Middle Ages

Posted on Oct 24, 2024 in History

THEME 2: THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE MIDDLE AGES: Al-Andalus

Approach to the Topic

This section covers the Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages (711-1492), from the conquest of Spain to the surrender of Granada. We will analyze the political, social, and economic aspects of this period.

Time Frame

Muslim Invasion: 711 AD
Dependent Emirate of Damascus: 711-756
Independent Emirate of Baghdad: 756-929
Caliphate of Cordoba: 929-1031
Taifa Kingdoms: 1031
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa: 1212
Reconquista of Granada: 1492

1. Historical Context: Muhammad and Islam

1.1 Islam and the Spread of Islam

In the early 7th century, the preaching of Muhammad in Arabia gave birth to Islam, a monotheistic religion related to Judaism and Christianity. The five pillars of Islam are:

Belief in Allah as the one God
Prayer five times a day towards Mecca and communal prayer in the mosque on Fridays
Fasting and abstinence during Ramadan
Almsgiving to the poor (Zakat), which eventually became a tax
Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime (Hajj)

Islam introduced a new calendar. The year 0 corresponds to 622 AD, the year of the Hijra (Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina). Muhammad died in 632 AD.

1.2 Consolidation of Christian Kingdoms and Resistance to Islam

During the Muslim presence in Al-Andalus, Christian kingdoms in Europe began to consolidate. Pockets of resistance against Islam also emerged in Spain, leading to the development of the Reconquista.

2. Political Developments of Al-Andalus: The Conquest, the Emirate, and the Caliphate of Cordoba

In April 711, a Berber army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad crossed the Strait of Gibraltar. Two months later, they defeated the Visigothic King Don Rodrigo at the Battle of Guadalete. Over the next three years, the Arabs and Berbers secured control of the Iberian Peninsula, primarily through surrender or agreements rather than military conquest. Unlike the Visigoths, who attempted to impose their rule, the Muslim conquerors established themselves at strategic points.

2.1 The Emirate of Cordoba and Racial Conflict

The Muslim expansion in Europe was halted by their defeat at the Battle of Tours (732). They subsequently settled south of the Pyrenees. The number of Arab and Berber settlers is estimated to have reached around 100,000. The Muslims’ tolerance towards other religions (Christianity and Judaism) and the socio-economic hardships faced by much of the Iberian population explain the relatively low resistance encountered during the conquest. However, internal conflicts arose, such as the Berber revolt against the Arabs in 741. The Arabs eventually subdued the rebels, expelling some of them. This led to the northwest of the peninsula being left without Muslim settlers. Around 750, the Muslim conquerors were firmly established in the Iberian Peninsula, which they called Al-Andalus. Cordoba was chosen as the capital, where the Wali (governor) resided. They minted their own coins and appointed provincial governors, while military commanders served as administrative heads.

When Abd al-Rahman I proclaimed himself Emir, he established new state structures. The territory was divided into Koras (provinces), each governed by an Arab Sheikh. To ensure communication between cities, the Arabs built fortified strongholds along the main roads. The border between Muslims and Christians was fluid and constantly shifting. The Muslims established three Marches (frontier zones) with capitals in Zaragoza, Toledo, and Merida. The main army was stationed near Cordoba under the Emir’s command, who feared potential threats from provincial governors and Christians. In 778, the Muslim governor of Zaragoza requested help from Charlemagne (King of the Franks) against Abd al-Rahman I. However, the Emir’s swift response allowed him to control the situation, resulting in severe repression in the Ebro Valley. Abd al-Rahman I’s authority ensured territorial control, tax collection, and the beginnings of Islamization. (This period also saw the Battle of Roncevaux Pass).

The population of Al-Andalus’ cities grew, and there was a rapid conversion of Hispano-Visigoths to Islam. This was likely due to the perceived weakness of their Christian beliefs and the opportunity to retain their property or be exempt from certain taxes. The converts were known as Muladi. The most significant crises occurred in Toledo and Cordoba. The Toledo uprising, which was more political, culminated in the “Day of the Ditch” in 797. The Cordoba uprising, which was more social, erupted in 818 with the “Revolt of the Suburb.” These events led to numerous executions and the exile of thousands, mostly Mozarabs (Christians who continued to practice their faith under Muslim rule).

The death of Abd al-Rahman II coincided with an economic crisis and increased Christian military activity, triggering a political crisis. Three dissatisfied groups were involved:

Many Arabs in the peninsula opposed the Emir’s increasingly despotic rule.
The Mozarabs were influenced by Islamic culture and Eastern fashions, which many young Christians embraced. A sense of frustration and resentment led some Mozarabic leaders to insult Muhammad and Islam.
Renegade Christians (Muladi) were dissatisfied with the social dominance of Arabs and Berbers. This led to the leaders of the Muladi in the border regions with Christian kingdoms exploiting their military power to remain virtually independent for years. The most dangerous movement was led by Umar ibn Hafsun, who challenged the Emirate’s forces for years.

2.2 The Caliphate of Cordoba: Abd al-Rahman III and the Consolidation of Power

Abd al-Rahman III ascended to the throne in 912 and initiated efforts to restore Umayyad power both internally and externally. External reconstruction involved containing the Christians, strengthening their positions, and securing Umayyad control in the Maghreb, where the Fatimid Caliphate posed a threat to Al-Andalus. Internal reconstruction required ending the rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun and controlling the independent Muladi leaders.

By 929, Abd al-Rahman III had achieved his objectives and proclaimed himself Caliph. The Caliphate represented the political and religious independence of Al-Andalus from any external authority. Maintaining this independence depended on the state’s wealth and military strength. During the 10th century, the Caliphs of Cordoba successfully ensured both.

2.3 Al-Andalus and the Christian Kingdoms: Almanzor

When Al-Hakam II died in 976, the new Caliph Hisham II was overshadowed by his Hajib (chief minister), Almanzor, who effectively ruled the state. Almanzor established a palace-city outside Cordoba (Madinat al-Zahra) from which he governed Al-Andalus until his death in 1002. Lacking Caliphal lineage, Almanzor’s dictatorship could only be legitimized through continuous military victories and territorial gains. After his death, his regime, based on force, barely survived. In 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba collapsed.

Almanzor’s campaigns: He sacked Santiago de Compostela, Zamora, Leon, Barcelona, and San Millán de la Cogolla. He was defeated at the Battle of Calatañazor (Soria), where he was wounded.

4.5 Crafts and Activities

The major crafts in Al-Andalus included weaving, pottery, leatherwork (cordovan), and damascening (inlaying precious metals). Artisans dominated the slums of large cities, where their workshops and clotheslines filled the streets. Artisans were numerous in construction, weaving, leather production, and copperware. Their noisy workshops shared the streets with the souk’s shops and mosques. They catered to the daily demands of their clientele.

4.6 Trade and Business

Traders in Al-Andalus bought and sold products from the surrounding countryside and distant goods brought by camel caravans. The Corn Exchanges (large warehouses) and the Alcaicería (silk markets) reflected the Arab influence on the vocabulary of trade.

5. Culture and Art

5.1 Muslims as Transmitters of Eastern Culture to the West

Philosophical, literary, and artistic works in Al-Andalus were influenced by Islam, ongoing contact with the Eastern world through a continuous flow of artists and intellectuals, and the solid material foundation of Andalusian society. The spread of education, the practice of reading and writing, and the development of libraries were both factors and consequences of this cultural exchange. The Arabic language played a crucial role in this process.

Cultural achievements became particularly noticeable during the reigns of Abd al-Rahman II and Al-Hakam II. The Caliph himself was a patron of all intellectual activities. After the interlude of Almanzor, the courts of the Taifa kingdoms competed to attract the best poets, philosophers, and jurists. This spirit of cultural flourishing in Al-Andalus lasted until the fall of the Kingdom of Granada in 1492.

5.2 Philosophy, Literature, and Medicine

Philosophy was viewed with suspicion by the guardians of Islamic orthodoxy. Nevertheless, philosophers like Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Arabi developed their philosophical systems. Averroes was the most prominent, aiming to harmonize Islamic religion and Aristotelian philosophy. Maimonides made a similar effort in relation to Judaism.

Medicine and science flourished in Al-Andalus from the arrival of the Muslims. Abbas ibn Firnas is credited with discovering the secret of making glass and developing a basic flying device. The development of scientific culture received a significant boost from the initiative of Caliph Al-Hakam II. Astronomical knowledge was linked to mathematics and astrological predictions. The development of botany was closely related to the introduction of new plants and improved farming techniques. In medicine, Andalusian physicians enjoyed great prestige. Their knowledge of Hippocrates, Galen, Avicenna, and others, along with the practice of dissection, formed the basis of their status.

5.3 Muslim Architecture: Architectural Elements

Artistic achievements in Al-Andalus resulted from a new art that blended local traditions (Roman and Visigothic) with Islamic and Hellenistic Eastern influences. The growing predominance of decorative elements (geometric and floral) gradually influenced architectural solutions. The art of Al-Andalus was characterized by its rich palette. The speed of construction, the large scale of buildings, and the richness of materials used demonstrated the economic capacity and authority of the rulers to mobilize significant human and monetary resources.

Materials: brick, masonry, tile, stucco, etc.

5.4 Mosques and Palaces

The desire to express political power explains the first typical Islamic construction type: the palace-city, exemplified by Madinat al-Zahra. The Aljafería Palace in Zaragoza and the Alhambra in Granada served the same purpose, as did the Alcázar of Seville.

The mosque was the second characteristic Islamic building type. It is a structure that lacks a hierarchical spatial arrangement and does not permit the representation of the divinity. The paradigm of this spiritual and architectural design is the Mosque of Cordoba. It consisted of a prayer hall, a minaret, and a courtyard with a fountain.

The Mosque of Cordoba is a vast rectangle measuring 180 by 130 meters, divided into 19 aisles separated by over 800 columns. It was built on the site of the former Christian church of San Vicente.

hurch of San Vicente.

THEME 2: THE IBERIAN PENINSULA IN THE MIDDLE AGES: Al Andalus.

Approach to the topic: it covers the full contents of the Muslim presence in the Peninsula during the Middle Ages (711 – 1492). It begins with the conquest of Spain and ending with the surrender of Granada. We analyze the political, social and economic.

Time frame:
Muslim Invasion: 711 AD
Dependent Emirate of Damascus: 711 – 756.
Independent Emirate of Baghdad: 756 – 929.
Caliphate of Cordoba: 929 – 1031.
Taifa kingdoms: 1031.
Las Navas de Tolosa: 1212.
Reconquista of Granada, 1492.

Scheme:
1. Historical Context: Muhammad and Islam:
1.1 Islam and the spread of Islam.
In the early seventh century, the preaching of Muhammad in Arabia gave birth to Islam, a monotheistic religion and related to Judaism and Christianity. The pillars of Islam are 5: belief in Allah as one God, prayer 5 times a day towards Mecca and the common prayer in the mosque on Fridays, fasting and abstinence during Ramadan, almsgiving to the poor, who finished configuring it as a tax, and the pilgrimage at least once in their life, to Mecca. Islam introduced a new computation of time. The year 0 was 622 of the era of Christ or Hegira date of transfer of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. Mohammed died in 632.

1.2 During the presence of Muslims in Al Andalus consolidate the Christian kingdoms in Europe.

1.3 The pockets of resistance in Spain against Islam begin and develop the reconquest.

2. Political developments of Al Andalus: the conquest, the Emirate and the Caliphate of Cordoba.
In April of 711, a Berber army under the command of Tarik, crossed the Gibraltar Strait. Two months later, the river Guadalete defeated the Visigoth King Don Rodrigo in the Battle of Guadalete. In the next three years, the Arabs and Berbers secured the domain of the mainland. They did more for the surrender or the covenant that the military victory over the Hispano-Gothic. Unlike the Visigoths, who tried to impose their political dominance in the Peninsula, the Muslim conquerors were installed at certain strategic points.

2.1 When an Emirate Andalus with its capital in Cordoba. Racial conflict.
The dynamic expansion of Muslims in the lands of Europe was held back in their defeat at Poitiers (732). Behind her, settled south of the Pyrenees. The number of Arabs and Berbers who had to be reached about 100,000.The traditional Muslim tolerance for peoples of other religions (Christianity and Judaism) and the critical social and economic situation in which he lived much of the population of the Peninsula explains low resistance that faced by the Muslims to conquer the peninsula. The installation caused more fighting, as the revolt of the Berbers against the Arabs in 741. The Arabs came to dominate the African rebels and expelling a few. With his departure, the entire northwest of the peninsula was no Muslim settlers. Around the year 750, Muslim conquerors were settled in the Peninsula.
They called Al Andalus
Cordoba was chosen as capital, where lay the wali
Minted the first coins themselves
Appointed the provincial governors, military commanders were only administrative heads.

When Rahman I was proclaimed emir, it created a new state structures. The territory was divided into Cora. In front of them were Arab Sheikhs. To ensure communication among cities, the Arabs built fortified strongholds along the highways. The border between Muslims and Christians was smooth and had great mobility. The Muslims were three sectors whose capital was Zaragoza, Toledo and Merida. The main army was installed at the gates of Cordoba to the orders of the emir, who feared further jeopardizing their provincial governors threatened Christians. In 778, the Muslim governor of Zaragoza asked for help from Charlemagne (king of the Franks), to fight against Rahman I, but the quick reaction of the emir allowed to control the situation, which resulted in severe repression on the population of the valley Ebro control force Rahman I assured control of the territory, collecting taxes and the first fruits of Islamization. (Battle of Roncesvalles).

There was an increase of the population of the cities of Al Andalus. There was also rapid Hispano converting to Islam, probably because of the weakness of their Christian religious beliefs and, above all, the ability to maintain their properties or be exempt from certain taxes. The converts were called Muladi. The most explosive events of the crisis took place in Toledo and Cordoba. The Toledo, more political, resulted in the 797 at the time called the moat. The Cordoba, more social, exploded in the 818 in the mutiny of the suburb. Devoured numerous executions and exile of thousands of people, most Mozarabic, ie Christians still employed in crafts and small businesses.

The death of Rahman II, which coincided with an economic crisis and increased military activities of Christians, provoking a political crisis. In it blended three groups unhappy:
Many Arabs living in the peninsula did not accept that the emir had become an Oriental despot.
The Mozarabic were influenced by the cultures of Islam and Eastern fashions. Many young Christians adopted them with enthusiasm. A feeling of anger and impotence pushed some of the leaders Mozarabic to insult Muhammad and Islam.
The renegade Christians were unhappy with the social hegemony over the Arabs and Berbers. This resulted in the counties bordering the Christian kingdoms, the chiefs Muladis took advantage of its military force remained virtually independent for years. The most dangerous movement was headed Hafsun Ben Omar, who held in check for years Emirate hosts.

2.2 The Caliphate of Cordoba:Rahman III. The power.
Rahman III took the throne in 912, and reconstruction efforts in the exterior and interior of Umayyad power.
The exterior reconstruction demanded contain Christians to strengthen their positions and ensure the Umayyad power in the Maghreb, where the Fatimid caliphate as a threat to Al Andalus.
The interior reconstruction required to end the uprising of Omar Ben-Hafsun and control the independent Muladis heads.

In 929, Abd ar-Rahman III had achieved its objectives and proclaimed himself caliph. The caliphate represented the political and religious independence of Al Andalus from any outside authority. Keeping this situation depended on the wealth of the state and army force. During the tenth century, Cordoba Caliphs knew guarantee both.

2.3 At Andalus and the Christian kingdoms. Almanzor.
When the wise Alhakam II died in 976, the new caliph was cornered by his hachib, Mansur, which dominated throughout the state and created on the outskirts of Cordoba a city-palace from which he led Al Andalus spends his death in 1002 (Medina). No blood in his veins caliph, Mansur’s dictatorship could only be legitimized by their continuous victories and acquisitions of boots. When Mansur died, his regime, based on force, barely survived. In 1031, the Caliphate of Cordoba disappeared.
Mansur destroyed: Santiago de Compostela, Zamora, Leon, Barcelona, San Millan de la Cogolla. He was defeated in Calatayazor (Soria) where he was wounded.