Al-Andalus and the Spanish Inquisition: A Historical Overview
1. Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus refers to the Iberian Peninsula territory under Muslim rule from 711 to 1492. After the 711 invasion, Muslims controlled nearly the entire peninsula within eight years, except for some inaccessible northern areas. Muslim Spain comprised three historical stages:
- The Emirate
- The Caliphate of Cordoba (912-1031)
- The Taifa Kingdoms (1031-1492), a period of disintegration into multiple kingdoms, ending with the Catholic Monarchs’ conquest of Granada in 1492.
Andalusian rulers held absolute political and religious authority. Andalusian society, primarily urban, exhibited diverse ethnicities, religions, and social structures. Cities like Cordoba thrived as cultural centers, especially during the Caliphate. The economy relied on trade, irrigated agriculture, new crops (citrus fruits, rice, cotton, saffron), and crafts. Islamic culture, influencing public life, left a lasting legacy after eight centuries of coexistence. Acting as knowledge transmitters, particularly from the Hellenistic world and the Orient, their influence remains in our lexicon and architecture, exemplified by the Mosque of Cordoba, the Alhambra in Granada, and the Aljafería in Zaragoza.
2. Mudejar and Morisco
Following the Christian reconquest, some Muslims remained in the peninsula. Despite respectful coexistence between Christians and Muslims for centuries, these groups faced social segregation, living in communities and bearing heavier taxes. Mudejar communities in Aragon and Valencia thrived under royal protection due to their economic value to the nobility. Mudejar influence is evident in architecture, notably in Aragon (La Seo de Zaragoza, Teruel Mudejar towers).
3. The Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834)
The Roman and medieval Inquisition, an ecclesiastical court, persecuted heresy. The Spanish Inquisition, established in Castile in 1478 and the Crown of Aragon in 1483 (also known as the Holy Office), differed due to its ties to political power. The 14th and 15th centuries saw the breakdown of tolerance and peaceful coexistence among Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, particularly affecting Jews. The Inquisition monitored conversion sincerity to Christianity. Hierarchically organized and centralized, it was headed by the Supreme Holy Inquisition Council, led by the Grand Inquisitor, who oversaw provincial courts. Initially targeting Judaizers and witchcraft, it later focused on Protestants and dissenters in the 16th century. In the 17th century, it shifted to social control, monitoring customs and morals. Declining in the 18th century, it targeted Freemasonry and revolutionary propaganda before its 1834 abolishment.
4. The End of Hispanic Hegemony
The Peace of Westphalia during the reigns of Charles I and Philip II solidified Spain’s European and Mediterranean hegemony. Philip III’s reign appeared peaceful, but Philip IV’s saw European decline. Internally, he faced rebellions in Catalonia and Portugal. Externally, failures in the Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648) and the Peace of Westphalia ended the religious wars plaguing Europe since 1517. The conflict stemmed from religious (Catholicism vs. Protestantism) and political (French monarchy and allies vs. Habsburg Austria) tensions. France was supported by German powers, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden. Westphalia marked Austria’s defeat, the German Empire’s disintegration, enshrined religious freedom, and established a European balance of power. Spain, excluded from the peace agreements, signed the Peace of Münster (1648), recognizing the Netherlands’ independence.