Age of Exploration: European Maritime Expansion and Colonization
Consequences of Expansion
The maritime expansion between Spain and Portugal sparked rivalries over newly discovered territories. The Pope, with his authority, played a crucial role in mediating these disputes.
The first dispute arose when Portugal claimed exclusive rights to African territories beyond Cape Bojador. Castile opposed this, but Pope Nicholas V confirmed Portugal’s claim in the 1455 papal bull Romanus Pontifex.
The 1479 Treaty of Alcáçovas-Toledo saw Portugal relinquish its claim to the Canary Islands, while Spain gained exploration rights along the African coast.
In 1493, the Spanish Crown, through the papal bull Inter caetera issued by Pope Alexander VI, claimed all lands west of a line 100 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde.
The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas shifted the demarcation line 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, defining the spheres of influence for Spain and Portugal.
Encounter Between Europe and America
The exploratory voyages expanded European geographical horizons, incorporating new territories and connecting continents. For years, the ‘discovery’ of America was considered a milestone marking the beginning of the modern era. However, recent scholarship challenges this notion, recognizing that America and its people had their own rich history prior to European arrival. This has led to a reframing of the narrative as an ‘encounter’ between European and American realities.
The European expansion and exploration were followed by conquest and settlement in the 16th century, and colonization during the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries. The recognition and conquest of new territories led to their economic exploitation, benefiting both private enterprise and royal coffers.
This began a shared history for Europe and America, marked by knowledge exchange, conflicts, wars, and integration.
Impact of Spanish Colonization
Spanish colonization profoundly impacted the lives of the indigenous peoples of America:
- Politically: A political system based on the Spanish monarchy was established, with laws drafted in Castile and institutions like the Council of the Indies, the House of Trade, the Royal Audiencias, and the cabildos.
- Economically: Agriculture, livestock, and the exploitation of precious metal mines fueled the colonial economy. Indigenous and enslaved labor was exploited. The influx of gold and silver enriched Europe. Trade with the New World stimulated economies and entrepreneurship.
- Socially: Colonial society was hierarchical, with Spaniards at the top, followed by mestizos, indigenous people, and enslaved Africans. The Spanish, the dominant group, intermingled with the native population, leading to mestizaje. The indigenous population suffered a drastic decline due to wars, diseases, and forced labor.
- Culturally: The Spanish language and Christianity were imposed. However, indigenous peoples maintained aspects of their worldview, languages, celebrations, and beliefs, contributing to a unique mestizo identity.
Geographical Discoveries
The 15th and 16th centuries witnessed extensive geographical explorations that expanded European knowledge. While East-West contact existed through trade, wars, migrations, and imperial expansions, vast uncharted territories remained. Europeans held fantastical beliefs about these lands, imagining mythical creatures and a terrestrial paradise. Columbus’s 1492 arrival in America challenged these notions, revealing diverse cultures and societies.
Causes of Geographic Expansion
In the 15th century, Europeans sought new routes to the East to avoid high taxes imposed by Arab traders who controlled the spice trade. Europe also needed gold and silver to pay for these goods. Land routes were disrupted by the Black Death and the Ottoman advance on Constantinople, further motivating the search for maritime routes.
Marco Polo’s travel accounts fueled the desire for exploration and evangelization. Scientific advances like the compass, astrolabe, sextant, quadrant, and improved cartography facilitated navigation. Advances in shipbuilding, with the caravel replacing the galley, enabled safer and faster voyages.
European Explorations
The strategic locations of Spain and Portugal, with ports like Lisbon and Cadiz, and their navigational experience, enabled them to lead the global expansion. Portugal achieved territorial unity in the 12th century, and Spain expelled the Muslims in 1492.
Portuguese Expeditions
- Henry the Navigator (1394-1460): Explored the African coast.
- Bartolomeu Dias (1488): Discovered the Cape of Good Hope.
- Vasco da Gama (1498): Reached Calicut, India, establishing a sea route to the East.
- Pedro Álvares Cabral (1500): Reached Brazil.
Portugal established colonies in Africa and India. By 1511, they reached the Moluccas, controlling the spice trade.
Spanish Expeditions
Spain sought an alternative route to Asia. The Catholic Monarchs financed Columbus’s expedition, who aimed to reach the East by sailing west, also believing he could prove the world was round. Columbus, however, encountered a new continent.
Núñez de Balboa’s discovery of the Pacific Ocean disproved Columbus’s belief that he had reached Asia. Amerigo Vespucci confirmed the discovery of a new continent, which was later named America. Juan de la Cosa created the first map of the new continent in 1500.
Capitulation of Santa Fe
This contract between Columbus and the Catholic Monarchs granted Columbus the titles of Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy, and Governor of the discovered lands, plus 10% of the profits.