Advanced English Grammar: Syntax, Structure, and Discourse
Basic Concepts of Functional Grammar
Unit 1: Language and Meaning in Communication
Functional Grammar: This approach emphasizes how grammar connects forms (words, phrases) to their functions (roles in communication) and meanings in context. It views language as a system of choices, where different forms are selected based on the speaker’s intent and the context.
Communicative Acts: These include various speech acts, such as making statements (e.g., She is coming tomorrow), asking questions (e.g., Is she coming tomorrow?), and giving commands (e.g., Come tomorrow!). Each act reflects interpersonal meaning, helping speakers interact socially.
Content of Communication: Language captures:
- Processes (actions, events, states)
- Participants (entities involved)
- Attributes (qualities of participants)
- Circumstances (time, place, manner)
Clause Structure: Clauses encode three types of meanings:
- Representational: Relating to the real world.
- Interpersonal: Facilitating interaction between speaker and listener.
- Textual: Organizing ideas into cohesive and coherent messages.
Active and Passive Voice:
- Active: Highlights the subject performing the action (e.g., Chris posts the letters every day).
- Passive: Shifts focus to the object or omits the agent entirely (e.g., The letters are posted every day).
Unit 2: Linguistic Forms and Syntactic Functions
Syntactic Categories: Units of grammar (clauses, phrases, words) arranged hierarchically. For example, a clause is made up of phrases, which consist of words.
Constituency Tests: Methods used to identify grammatical units include:
- Coordination (using and)
- Wh-questions (e.g., What did she see?)
- Clefting (e.g., It was the man she saw)
Grammatical Units: Language is patterned, with identifiable structures:
- Clause: They went to the park.
- Group/Phrase: to the park.
- Word: park.
Finite and Non-Finite Clauses:
- Finite clauses are marked for tense and modality (e.g., She goes).
- Non-finite clauses use forms like infinitives or participles (e.g., to go, going).
Unit 3: Negation, Interrogation, and Clause Expansion
Negative Structures: In English, negation typically involves “not” or “n’t” (e.g., She isn’t here). Other structures use negative pronouns or adverbs (e.g., No one came).
Interrogative Structures: Formed by subject-operator inversion (e.g., Are you ready?).
Scope of Negation: Determines the range of influence of negation in a sentence. Example: She did not [speak to anyone].
Expansion: Enables clauses to include additional information through:
- Coordination (using and)
- Subordination (using because)
- Embedding (using that clause)
The Skeleton of the Message: Clause Structure
Unit 4: Syntactic Elements of the Clause
Clause Constituents
- Subject (S): Encodes the main participant and governs the agreement with the verb (e.g., The dog runs).
- Predicate (P): The main verb phrase that tells what the subject does or experiences.
- Object (O): Receives the action (e.g., She wrote a book).
- Complement (C): Describes or provides additional information about the subject or object (e.g., The sky is blue).
- Adjunct (A): Provides extra details such as time, manner, or place (e.g., She works diligently in the evening).
Examples of Clause Structures:
- S-P: Tom disappeared.
- S-P-Od (Direct Object): We hired a car.
- S-P-A: He works in London.
Adjunct Types
- Circumstantial: Specifies time, place, or manner (e.g., She left early).
- Stance: Indicates the speaker’s attitude (e.g., Clearly, it’s wrong).
- Connective: Links ideas (e.g., However, she stayed).
Unit 5: Subject and Predicator Roles
Subject: Represents the “doer” (Agent) or focus in a clause. Syntactic Features:
- Agrees with the verb (e.g., She works).
- Appears before the verb in declaratives (e.g., They left).
- Can invert in questions (e.g., Did they leave?).
Predicator: The core of the predicate, realized by verbs that define the action, event, or state. It determines Objects and Complements in clauses. Functions include indicating tense, aspect, modality, and voice (e.g., They might have been seen).
Unit 6: Objects and Complements in Syntax
Direct Object (Od): Answers “what” or “whom.” Example: She wrote a letter. Can become the Subject in passives: The letter was written.
Indirect Object (Oi): Represents the recipient: She gave him a book. Paraphrases with prepositions: She gave a book to him.
Prepositional Complements: Occur with verbs like rely on or listen to. These structures are not interchangeable with Objects.
Unit 7: Adverbials: Types and Positioning
Types of Adverbials
- Circumstantial: Adds time/place details (e.g., He left yesterday).
- Stance: Expresses viewpoint (e.g., Fortunately, she stayed).
- Connective: Indicates relationships between clauses (e.g., Therefore, we agreed).
Positioning: Adverbials can occur at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. Their placement affects emphasis. Example: Yesterday, she left early vs. She left early yesterday.
Unit 8: Coordination and Subordination Techniques
Coordination: Links units of equal status (e.g., He ran and she walked). Conjunctions used include and, but, or, so.
Subordination: Embeds dependent clauses into main clauses (e.g., Although she was late, she apologized). Subordinating conjunctions include because, although, when, since.
Expanding the Message: Embedding and Cohesion
Unit 9: Types of Embedded Clauses
Nominal Clauses: Act as Subject (e.g., What he said matters), Object (e.g., I know what he said), or Complement (e.g., The fact is that he left). They are frequently introduced by that or wh-words (who, what, where). Example: What she said in What she said was surprising serves as the Subject.
Relative Clauses: Add descriptive detail to nouns (e.g., The man who arrived late apologized).
- Restrictive clauses specify essential information (e.g., The car that broke down belongs to me).
- Non-restrictive clauses provide additional but non-essential details (e.g., My car, which is red, broke down).
Adverbial Clauses: Function as modifiers to express time (e.g., After the meeting ended), condition (e.g., If it rains), or reason (e.g., Because he was late).
Unit 10: Complex and Compound Sentence Structures
Complex Sentences: Combine independent and dependent clauses to express nuanced relationships (e.g., He stayed because it rained). Subordination highlights the dependency between clauses.
Compound Sentences: Join two or more independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions (e.g., He stayed, and it rained).
Blending of Clause Types: Combining both coordination and subordination in a single sentence enhances richness. Example: He stayed because it rained, but he left early anyway.
Unit 11: Information Structure and Cohesive Devices
Theme and Rheme: Theme refers to what is being discussed (the starting point), while Rheme introduces new information. Example: In the evening (Theme), she goes for a walk (Rheme).
Cohesive Devices
These devices ensure text coherence through:
- References: Pronouns like this, those to avoid repetition.
- Ellipsis: Omission of predictable elements (e.g., She wanted to leave, but couldn’t [leave]).
- Conjunctions: Logical connectors (e.g., however, therefore).
End-Focus Principle: Emphasizes the most important information at the sentence’s end (e.g., What truly matters is trust).
Unit 12: Pragmatic Functions and Speech Acts
Speech Acts: Focuses on the communicative intent of statements, questions, and commands. Examples:
- Assertion: I know the answer.
- Question: Do you know the answer?
- Command: Answer the question!
Politeness Strategies: Balancing directness with politeness: Could you possibly help me? (indirect) vs. Help me! (direct).
Implicature: Meaning inferred from context, such as Can you close the window? implying a request rather than a literal question.
Clause Types and Functions
Unit 13: Declarative, Interrogative, and Imperative Forms
Declaratives: Used for stating information (e.g., It is raining.).
Interrogatives: Formed by subject-operator inversion and used for questions (e.g., Are you coming?).
Imperatives: Express commands or requests (e.g., Close the door.).
Exclamatives: Convey strong emotions or exclamations (e.g., What a beautiful day!).
Unit 14: Passive Voice and Inversion Structures
Passive Voice: Focuses on the action or object rather than the agent (e.g., The task was completed by the team.). It transforms active sentences to emphasize different elements. Example: The chef cooked the meal → The meal was cooked by the chef.
Inversion: Alters normal word order for emphasis (e.g., Never have I seen such dedication!).
Unit 15: Stylistic Variations in Grammar
Nominalization: Converts verbs into nouns for a formal tone (e.g., Their arrival surprised us).
Stylistic Choices: Adapt grammar to match the purpose, tone, or audience (e.g., Would you mind explaining? for politeness).
Unit 16: Advanced Clause Techniques
Ellipsis and Substitution: Avoid redundancy by omitting repeated elements (e.g., She likes apples, and he [likes apples] too.).
Discourse Markers: Connect ideas smoothly (e.g., Well, so, anyway).
Unit 17: Maintaining Textual Cohesion
Reference and Substitution: Maintain flow by referring back to earlier points (e.g., this, that, it).
Conjunctions: Link clauses logically (e.g., because, although, however). Example: She left early because she felt unwell.
Unit 18: Spoken versus Written Discourse
Spoken Discourse: Interactive, uses fillers (e.g., um, you know) and repairs. Example: Well, I mean, I guess that’s fine.
Written Discourse: More structured, relies on complex syntax for clarity. Example: The findings, however, indicate significant progress.
Cohesion and Discourse Analysis
Unit 19: Register and Style: Formal vs. Informal
Formal vs. Informal:
- Formal: Uses complex sentences and avoids contractions (e.g., It is imperative to act promptly).
- Informal: More conversational, with colloquialisms and contractions (e.g., Let’s do this now).
Adjusting Register: Tailor language based on audience and context (e.g., academic papers vs. casual conversations).
Unit 20: Pragmatic Devices: Hedging and Boosters
Hedging: Adds uncertainty to soften statements (e.g., It seems that this might work).
Boosters: Adds emphasis for stronger assertions (e.g., This is absolutely true).
Unit 21: Paragraph Development and Logical Flow
Logical Flow: Use transitions for coherence (e.g., Furthermore, therefore).
Structuring Paragraphs: Begin with a topic sentence, provide evidence, and conclude logically.
Unit 22: Narrative and Expository Strategies
Narrative Techniques: Use storytelling to engage (e.g., Once upon a time, there was…).
Expository Techniques: Clarify ideas with explanations or examples (e.g., For instance, consider this scenario…).
Unit 23: Argumentation and Counterarguments
Persuasion: Use logical reasoning and evidence to convince (e.g., Studies show that…).
Counterarguments: Address opposing views to strengthen credibility (e.g., While some argue X, evidence suggests Y).
Unit 24: Understanding Text Genres
Academic Writing: Formal tone, structured argumentation (e.g., The hypothesis was tested using…).
Creative Writing: Focuses on imagery and emotional resonance (e.g., The stars danced in the night sky).
Unit 25: Cross-Cultural Communication Norms
Cultural Norms: Recognize variations in politeness, directness, and formality (e.g., In some cultures, indirectness shows respect).
Language Variations: Adapt to dialects and registers for effective communication.
Unit 26: Multimodal Communication and Digital Media
Visual Aids: Enhance understanding with charts, graphs, and images (e.g., See Figure 1 for reference).
Digital Media: Utilize hyperlinks, videos, or interactive elements for engagement.
Unit 27: Critical Reading and Effective Writing
Critical Reading: Identify biases, assumptions, and logical fallacies (e.g., Does the author provide evidence?).
Effective Writing: Focus on clarity, conciseness, and impact (e.g., Ensure arguments are well-supported).
Advanced Grammar Topics
Unit 28: Idiomatic Expressions and Figurative Language
Fixed Phrases: Recognize and use idioms and collocations (e.g., kick the bucket, make a decision).
Figurative Language: Use metaphors, similes, and idiomatic expressions to enrich meaning (e.g., Time is a thief). Phrasal verbs often form part of idiomatic expressions (e.g., give up, turn off). Correct usage requires understanding their meaning in context.
Practical Application: Mastering idiomatic expressions enhances fluency and helps in understanding native speakers in informal settings.
Unit 29: Historical Evolution and Contemporary Trends
Historical Evolution: Explore how language evolves over time (e.g., Old English to Modern English). Examples include changes in vocabulary (e.g., thou replaced by you), sentence structure, and the borrowing of words from other languages.
Contemporary Trends:
- Technology has introduced new vocabulary (e.g., selfie, hashtag, cloud computing).
- Informal styles in digital communication, such as abbreviations (e.g., LOL, brb), have influenced spoken language.
Future of English: The rise of global English could standardize grammar while accommodating regional variations.
Unit 30: Contextual Usage and Professional Application
Contextual Usage: Adjust grammar based on purpose and medium (e.g., formal emails vs. casual texts).
Example: Avoiding contractions in formal writing (e.g., do not instead of don’t).
Shifting tone: Could you please provide details? (polite) vs. Send me the details. (direct).
Application in Professional Settings
- Academic Writing: Requires precision, clarity, and formality (e.g., The results demonstrate…).
- Business Communication: Balances professionalism and clarity (e.g., Thank you for your time. We would like to schedule a follow-up meeting.).
Real-World Examples
- Conversational English: Hey, can you grab me a coffee?
- Formal Speech: I would appreciate it if you could provide clarification.